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def!n!t!on He^ de
=> (^) refer to (^) cop!es or (^) representat!ons that (^) symbols (^) convey!ng phys!cal form^ of have lost^ the!r^ or!g!nal^ mean!ng or^ reference^ mean!ng s!gns => (^) co!red (^) by Jean Baudr!llard (^) s!enn value (^) exchange s!mulat!on us^. representat!on
↓ ↓ *^ becomes^ detached fromthegr!nd^ med!
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- Fourth (^) order -> bears no (^) relat!on to real!ty !dent!ty and^ consumpt!on ↑ (^) order (^1) pre-moder era *^ personal (^) !dent!ty !s often constructed (^) through the => (^) the (^) !mage !s (^) a clear (^) counterfe!t consumpt!on of (^) symbol!c products of (^) the real (^) recogn!sed as an !llus!on or (^) placeholder * (^) !nd!v!duals (^) express themselves (^) through brands (^) and for the real (^) pa!nt!ng of^ a (^) landscape l!m!tat!on)^ symbol
2 order -> modern era excap!sm and hyperreal!ty
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=> photograph of a person (representat!on of that *^ empt!ness of a soc!ety dr!ven by s!mulated
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(^) representat!on of (^) onl!ne becomes more and^ exper!ences !n a (^) hyperreal env!ronment real than^ offl!ne (^) real!ty ↓ => (^) VR exper!enced as (^) real dom!nate our l!ves^ where (^) !mage lost connect!ons to^ real!ty
culture definition
- a complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
- consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment in artefacts.
- a derivative of individual experience, something learned or created by individuals themselves or passed on to them socially by contemporaries or ancestors.
- the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.
- a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures, and behavioral conventions that are shared by a group of people and that influence each member's behavior and interpretation of the meaning of other people's behavior.
- manifested at different layers of depth, including observable artifacts, values, and basic underlying assumptions.
- an organized system in which particular components may be related to other components.
- constantly experiencing change, and its components can undergo additions, deletions, or modifications.
- not exclusive to certain members of society and is not inherently value-laden.
- Culture is manifested at different layers of depth
- Observable Artifacts
- Values
- Basic Underlying Assumptions
- Observable Artifacts (First Level)
- physical layout, dress code, interpersonal dynamics, emotional intensity, and more.
- archival manifestations like company records, products, philosophy statements. -> Challenges in Analyzing Observable Artifacts:
- Data is easy to obtain but hard to interpret.
- Describes "how" a group behaves but not always "why."
- Values (Second Level):
- Values govern behavior and are often inferred through interviews or content analysis.
- Espoused values represent what people say is the reason for their behavior.
- Underlying Assumptions (Third Level):
- Imperative to delve into underlying assumptions to understand the group fully.
- Assumptions are unconscious and determine how group members perceive, think, and feel.
-> Transformation of Values into Assumptions:
- Values lead to behavior, and as behavior solves problems, values transform into underlying assumptions.
- Assumptions become taken-for-granted and drop out of awareness. -> Power of Assumptions:
- Assumptions are less debatable and confrontable than espoused values.
- Examples include beliefs that businesses should be profitable or schools should educate. -> Unconscious Nature of Assumptions:
- Basic assumptions are unconscious due to repeated motivational and cognitive processes.
- Need focused inquiry by both insiders and outsiders to bring assumptions back to awareness.
- Culture affects behaviour and interpretations of behaviour
- Culture influences behavior and the interpretations of behavior, with the meaning of cultural practices lying in the way they are interpreted by insiders.
- Cultural practices, such as gestures and choice of clothing, can be interpreted differently by various cultural groups, impacting social interactions and communication.
- The invisible cultural meaning of practices is crucial, as it shapes the understanding and responses of individuals within a specific cultural context.
- The influence of culture on behavior extends to the symbolic transmission of cultural norms and the socialization of individuals, leading to diverse responses to physical and social stimuli across different cultures.
- Culture can be differentiated from both universal human nature and unique individual personality
- Culture is learned and derived from one's social environment, distinct from genetic inheritance, and should be distinguished from universal human nature and unique individual personality.
- Human nature represents the universal level of mental programming shared by all human beings, inherited with genes, and governing basic psychological functioning.
- Culture modifies how individuals express feelings and behaviors associated with human nature, highlighting the influence of learned cultural norms on human responses.
- Individual personality is unique to each person, based on a combination of inherited traits and learned behaviors, distinct from both universal human nature and the collective programming of culture.
- Culture influences biological processes
- Culture can influence biological processes, as demonstrated by the example of how the idea of eating rattlesnake meat triggered vomiting in individuals who had internalized the belief that it was repulsive.
- Learned cultural ideas can alter the experience of pain, leading to instances of voluntary control of pain reflexes in various
- Culture has both universal (etic) and distinctive (emic) elements
- Culture includes universal (etic) elements that are shared across different cultures, reflecting basic human biological and social similarities.
- Culture also encompasses distinctive (emic) elements that are unique to specific cultures, such as language, customs, and specific belief systems.
- The coexistence of both etic and emic elements allows for the diversity and commonality within cultural systems, accommodating shared characteristics and unique cultural expressions.
- Culture is learned
- Culture is learned through socialization and interaction with others.
- Children learn culture from observing and imitating the behavior of adults and other members of their society.
- Cultural learning involves the acquisition of values, beliefs, customs, and language.
- Cultural learning is a lifelong process that occurs through formal and informal education, as well as through personal experiences and interactions with others.
- Culture is subject to gradual change
- Culture is not static and undergoes gradual change over time.
- Cultural change is a constant feature of all societies, although the pace of change varies.
- New cultural components are accepted, existing ones may change, and some components may die out.
- The dynamic nature of culture requires constant monitoring and understanding of cultural diffusion and selective acceptance of new ideas and behaviors.
- Cultural change has important implications for international business, requiring adaptability and understanding of local cultural dynamics.
- The various parts of a culture are all, to some degree, interrelated
- Cultures are integrated wholes, characterized by coherent and logical systems where the parts are interrelated to some degree.
- Culture is an organized system in which specific components are related to each other, forming an integrated whole.
- Understanding cultures as integrated systems allows for insight into how specific cultural traits fit into the overall context and make sense within that framework.
- Changes in one part of the cultural system are likely to produce concomitant changes in other parts, illustrating the interconnected nature of cultural components.
- Recognizing the interrelated nature of cultural parts provides a better understanding of "strange" customs encountered in international business and the potential effects of cultural changes.
- Culture is a descriptive not an evaluative concept
- Culture is a descriptive concept that seeks to understand and explain the beliefs, behaviors, and norms of a society without
passing judgment.
- It involves studying and analyzing cultural practices, values, and traditions within their specific social and historical contexts.
- The descriptive nature of culture allows for the exploration of cultural diversity and the understanding of different cultural perspectives without imposing value judgments.
- This approach enables researchers and individuals to appreciate and respect cultural differences without assigning superiority or inferiority to specific cultural traits or practices. Inadequate conceptions of culture
- There are at least six inadequate ideas about culture that are related and mutually reinforcing.
- culture is homogenous, assuming that a culture provides clear and unambiguous behavioral "instructions" to individuals.
- culture is a thing, leading to the reification of culture and the notion that it can act independently of human actors.
- culture is uniformly distributed among members of a group, ignoring intracultural variation and diversity.
- culture is timeless, imputing a changeless quality to culture, especially traditional ones.
- culture is a unitary cognitive element, such as "the Arab mind," which oversimplifies the complexity of cultural dynamics.
- culture is a deterministic force, simplistically attributing behavior solely to cultural influences and overlooking individual agency and diversity. Levels of Analysis and Fallacies to Avoid
- Culture is manifested at different layers of depth: observable artifacts, values, and basic underlying assumptions.
- Culture-level measures can best be used to explain culture-level variation; individual-level measures can best be used to explain individual-level variations.
- Confusion about levels of analysis is a problem in cross-cultural psychology, as many researchers fall victim to the ecological fallacy.
- The ecological fallacy is the assumption that what is true at the group level is also true at the individual level.
- The six inadequate ideas about culture are related and mutually reinforcing, and greatly diminish the utility of the culture concept as an analytical tool for understanding social action, in this case, conflict and conflict resolution.
- To make a firmer test of causal links to individual behavior, we should use characterizations of the values of particular individuals or groups of individuals if we want to predict how those particular individuals will behave. Culture and Related Terms
- Culture and Nation:
- nations contain multiple cultures within their boundaries.
- "culture" is not synonymous with "nation," as nations are political entities with formal and legal mechanisms, while cultures influence the regulations of a nation.
- For example, the United States has several major cultural groups living within its boundaries, and all members of these groups are citizens of the nation.
- Culture and Race:
- refers to genetic or biologically based similarities among people and is a more all-encompassing term than culture or