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Theory
Framework:
Sigmund Freud
Structure: What is the structure of personality according to the theory? The Three Components of Personality According to Freud, personality is structured into three parts: ● Id (Unconscious, Primitive Desires) – Operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification of instincts. ● Ego (Reality-Oriented, Rational) – Functions on the reality principle, balancing the demands of the id and the constraints of reality. ● Superego (Moral and Ethical Standards) – Represents internalized societal values, acting as the conscience that guides behavior. These three components interact constantly, shaping a person’s thoughts, emotions, and actions. Dynamics: What motivates behavior according to the theory? How does the theory explain why a person does what she/he is doing? Motivation Behind Behavior Freud believed that behavior is driven by unconscious forces, particularly: ● Eros (Life Instincts) – The drive for survival, pleasure, love, and sexual reproduction ● Thanatos (Death Instincts) – The unconscious drive toward aggression, destruction, and self-sabotage. The theory explains behavior as a result of conflicts between the id, ego, and superego. For example, a person may experience anxiety due to repressed desires, which can manifest in defense mechanisms like denial or projection. Development: How does the theory explain between human development, from infanity to old age? Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud proposed that personality develops through five psychosexual stages:
- Oral Stage (0-1 year) – Focus on mouth activities (sucking, biting). Fixation may lead to dependency or habits like smoking.
- Anal Stage (1-3 years) – Focus on bowel control. Fixation may result in obsessive cleanliness ( anal-retentive ) or disorderliness ( anal-expulsive ).
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years) – Identification with same-sex parent, resolution of Oedipus/Electra complex.
- Latency Stage (6-12 years) – Sexual energy is repressed, and focus shifts to social and intellectual skills.
- Genital Stage (12+ years) – Mature sexual relationships and development of adult personality. Unresolved conflicts at any stage can lead to fixation, influencing adult personality. Psychopathology: What abnormal behavior patterns develop according to the theory? Abnormal Behavior Patterns According to Freud, psychological disorders arise from unconscious conflicts and repressed thoughts. Common issues include: ● Neuroses (e.g., anxiety, phobias, OCD) – Due to unresolved unconscious conflicts.
● Hysteria and Conversion Disorders – Physical symptoms without medical cause, linked to repressed emotions. ● Fixations – Unresolved psychosexual conflicts affecting personality (e.g., oral fixation leading to excessive dependency). Defense mechanisms (e.g., repression, displacement, regression) are used to cope with unconscious conflicts but can lead to maladaptive behaviors Psychotherapy: What intentions for addressing personality disorder are proposed by the theory? Psychoanalysis as Treatment Freud proposed psychoanalysis to uncover unconscious conflicts and resolve psychological distress. Techniques include: ● Free Association – Encouraging spontaneous speech to reveal unconscious thoughts. ● Dream Analysis – Interpreting dreams as symbols of hidden desires. ● Transference – Patients projecting unconscious feelings onto the therapist. The goal is to bring repressed material into consciousness, helping individuals gain insight and resolve conflicts. Applications: What are the contribution of the theory in the developing field of personality psychology?
Contributions to Personality Psychology
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has significantly influenced psychology, contributing to: ● Understanding the Unconscious Mind – Highlighting the role of unconscious motives in behavior. ● Developmental Psychology – Introducing the concept that childhood experiences shape personality. ● Psychotherapy – Laying the foundation for modern therapeutic approaches. ● Defense Mechanisms – Providing a framework for understanding coping behaviors. ● Influence on Other Theories – Inspiring Neo-Freudians (e.g., Jung, Adler, Erikson) and later personality theories. Though controversial, Freud’s theory remains fundamental in psychology, shaping research on personality, mental health, and human behavior. Sigmund Freud developed several key theories that shaped the field of psychology, particularly in personality, development, and psychotherapy. His most influential theories include: Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Freud's psychoanalytic theory proposes that personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts between three structures of the mind: ● Id – Primitive instincts (pleasure principle). ● Ego – Rational self (reality principle). ● Superego – Moral conscience (internalized societal values). Personality develops through these conflicting forces, often influenced by early childhood experiences. Psychosexual Theory of Development Freud believed that personality develops through five psychosexual stages , where pleasure is focused on different erogenous zones:
- Oral Stage (0-1 year) – Pleasure from the mouth (sucking, biting).
- Anal Stage (1-3 years) – Focus on bowel control (toilet training).
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years) – Identification with same-sex parent (Oedipus/Electra complex).
- Latency Stage (6-12 years) – Sexual energy is dormant; focus on social and intellectual skills.
- Genital Stage (12+ years) – Mature sexual relationships develop. Fixation at any stage can lead to personality issues in adulthood.
Theory
Framework:
Carl Gustav Jung
Structure: What is the structure of personality according to the theory? The Components of Personality Jung proposed that personality consists of three major components: ● Ego – The conscious mind, responsible for thoughts, memories, and perceptions of reality. ● Personal Unconscious – Contains repressed or forgotten memories, similar to Freud’s unconscious. ● Collective Unconscious – A shared, inherited reservoir of knowledge and archetypes that influence human behavior Jung believed that the collective unconscious connects all humans through archetypes —universal symbols and themes present in myths, dreams, and cultural narratives. Key archetypes include: ● Persona – The social mask we wear in different situations. ● Shadow – The hidden, darker side of personality. ● Anima/Animus – Feminine aspects in men (anima) and masculine aspects in women (animus). ● Self – The fully integrated and balanced personality. Dynamics: What motivates behavior according to the theory? How does the theory explain why a person does what she/he is doing? Motivation Behind Behavior Jung believed that behavior is driven by the psychic energy (libido) , which is the journey toward self-realization and balance. Key motivators: Individuation – The lifelong process of integrating different parts of the psyche. Balancing Opposites – Human behavior is shaped by opposing forces (e.g., introversion vs. extraversion, conscious vs. unconscious). Archetypal Influences – Unconscious archetypes influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Other key motivators include: ● Psychic Energy (Libido) – Unlike Freud, Jung saw libido as a general life energy, not just sexual energy. ● Opposing Forces – The psyche contains opposing elements (e.g., rational vs. irrational, conscious vs. unconscious), and harmony between them is essential for psychological well-being. ● Compensation – The unconscious compensates for imbalances in the conscious mind, influencing dreams, behaviors, and thoughts. People behave as they do because of a dynamic interplay between their conscious choices and unconscious influences (e.g., dreams, instincts, and repressed memories). Jung explained behavior as a result of individuals striving for personal growth and inner harmony rather than being driven solely by past experiences or instincts.
Development: How does the theory explain between human development, from infanity to old age?
Stages of Human Development
Jung’s theory of development emphasizes lifelong growth rather than focusing only on childhood. He proposed that individuals go through stages leading to individuation: Childhood (Birth to Puberty) – The "Primitive" Self ● Ego begins to develop. ● Consciousness is limited, and the child is primarily driven by instincts and external influences. ● Personality is shaped by parental and social conditioning. Youth and Early Adulthood (Puberty to 30s) – The Social Persona ● People develop their Persona (social mask) to fit into society. ● Focus is on external achievements (career, relationships, social roles). ● Often dominated by extraversion , ambition, and societal expectations. Middle Age (35-60) – The Individuation Process Begins ● The most important stage in Jungian development. ● People begin to question their life's meaning and move beyond their Persona. ● The Shadow (hidden or suppressed aspects of the self) emerges, requiring integration. ● There is a shift from extraversion (focus on the external world) to introversion (inner self-exploration). ● A spiritual and philosophical awakening often occurs. Old Age (60+) – Transcendence and Completion ● Individuals reflect on their lives and integrate different aspects of their personality. ● If individuation is successful, one experiences wisdom, inner peace, and acceptance. ● If unsuccessful, people may experience regret, despair, or existential crisis. Unlike Freud, Jung emphasized spiritual growth and saw middle age as a key turning point in psychological development Psychopathology: What abnormal behavior patterns develop according to the theory? Abnormal Behavior Patterns According to Jung, mental disorders arise from imbalances in the psyche, particularly conflicts between conscious and unconscious forces. Common issues include: ● Neurosis – Results from a lack of individuation or unresolved conflicts within the unconscious. ● Depression & Anxiety – May stem from repression of the shadow or failure to integrate different aspects of personality. ● Psychosis – Caused by an overwhelming influence of unconscious elements, leading to a loss of contact with reality. Jung also emphasized that spiritual crises and lack of meaning in life can lead to psychological distress. Psychotherapy: What intentions for addressing personality disorder are proposed by the theory? Jungian Therapy Approach Jung’s therapy focuses on helping individuals achieve individuation and integrate unconscious elements into their conscious self. Methods include: ● Dream Analysis – Interpreting symbols and archetypes in dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts.
Theory
Framework:
Alfred Adler
Structure: What is the structure of personality according to the theory? The Components of Personality Adler rejected Freud’s tripartite model (Id, Ego, Superego) and instead saw personality as a unified whole. He emphasized that personality is shaped by: ● Striving for Superiority – The primary drive to overcome weaknesses and achieve personal growth. ● Inferiority Complex – A deep feeling of inadequacy that can lead to overcompensation or withdrawal. ● Social Interest – The innate potential to cooperate and contribute to society. ● Lifestyle – The unique way an individual adapts to life’s challenges, shaped by early childhood experiences. For Adler, personality is not divided into parts but functions as a whole, guided by personal goals and
social influences.
Dynamics: What motivates behavior according to the theory? How does the theory explain why a person does what she/he is doing? ● Striving for Superiority – People are driven by a need to overcome inferiority and improve themselves. ● Compensation – If individuals feel weak in one area, they may compensate by excelling in another. ● Fictional Finalism – People are guided by imagined life goals (e.g., "I must be perfect to be loved"). ● Social Interest – Healthy individuals seek success that benefits not just themselves but also society. In contrast to Freud, who focused on unconscious drives, Adler emphasized conscious goals and social influences as the key motivators of behavior. Development: How does the theory explain between human development, from infanity to old age? Personality Development from Infancy to Old Age Adler argued that early childhood experiences and family dynamics shape personality: ● Inferiority Feelings – Infants feel helpless and dependent, creating a sense of inferiority. ● Compensation & Overcompensation – Children develop strengths to overcome weaknesses. ● Birth Order Theory – Adler suggested that personality is influenced by birth order : ○ Firstborns – Often responsible but may struggle with dethronement when a sibling arrives. ○ Middle Children – Competitive, ambitious, and more adaptable. ○ Youngest Children – Often spoiled or rebellious but may feel the need to prove themselves. ○ Only Children – Mature early, may struggle with social competition. Adler saw development as a lifelong process , where people continuously strive to overcome challenges and contribute to society. Psychopathology: What abnormal behavior patterns develop according to the theory? Causes of Abnormal Behavior
Adler believed that psychological disorders result from mistaken lifestyles and low social interest : ● Inferiority Complex – Feeling inadequate and unable to cope, leading to anxiety and depression. ● Superiority Complex – Overcompensating for feelings of inferiority by acting arrogant or controlling. ● Style of Life Problems – Maladaptive lifestyles developed in childhood that hinder personal growth. ● Lack of Social Interest – Disconnection from society can lead to selfishness, aggression, or criminal behavior. Adler emphasized that unhealthy personalities develop when individuals fail to overcome their inferiority and lack a sense of social purpose. Psychotherapy: What intentions for addressing personality disorder are proposed by the theory? Adlerian Therapy Adler’s approach to therapy focused on helping people develop healthier lifestyles through: ● Identifying Mistaken Beliefs – Recognizing self-defeating thoughts and behaviors. ● Encouragement – Building confidence by reinforcing strengths. ● Reorientation – Helping clients shift their goals to be more socially useful. ● Exploring Birth Order & Early Memories
- Understanding how childhood experiences shape personality. Unlike Freud, who focused on uncovering unconscious conflicts, Adler focused on empowering individuals to change their behavior and mindset. Applications: What are the contribution of the theory in the developing field of personality psychology? Contributions to Personality Psychology Adler’s Individual Psychology contributed to multiple fields: ● Holistic Personality Theory – Emphasized that personality is a unified whole, rather than separate parts. ● Social Psychology – Stressed the role of social interest in mental health and well-being. ● Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) – His ideas on mistaken beliefs influenced modern CBT techniques. ● Humanistic Psychology – Inspired later theorists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. ● Parenting & Education – Encouraged positive reinforcement and understanding birth order dynamics. His focus on self-improvement, social interest, and overcoming inferiority remains highly relevant in psychology today.
List of Adler’s Theories
1. Individual Psychology – Personality is a
unified whole, shaped by goals, inferiority, and social interest.
- Striving for Superiority – The fundamental drive to overcome weakness and achieve success.
- Inferiority & Superiority Complex – Psychological struggles arise from attempts to compensate for inferiority.
- Social Interest Theory – Healthy individuals contribute to society, while unhealthy ones lack social purpose.
- Birth Order Theory – Personality is influenced by the order of birth in a family.
- Fictional Finalism – People are guided by future-oriented, imagined life goals.
- Emphasized the role of culture, gender, and relationships in mental health.
- Helped shape modern cognitive and interpersonal therapy techniques. Theoretical Framework Figure A simple diagram can illustrate how basic anxiety leads to coping strategies, influencing personality and mental health outcomes: 📌 Basic Anxiety → Neurotic Trends (Compliance, Aggression, Detachment) → Personality Development & Behavior → Potential Psychopathology (If Anxiety Persists) → Therapeutic Approaches (Self-Awareness & Growth)
Theory
Framework:
Melanie Klein
Structure: What is the structure of personality according to the theory? Structure of Personality ● Personality is shaped by internalized object relations (mental images of caregivers and early relationships). ● Two primary internal object relations: ○ Good Objects: Represent nurturing, loving relationships. ○ Bad Objects: Represent neglectful, harmful, or frustrating relationships. ● These internalized experiences influence self-perception and interpersonal interactions throughout life. Dynamics: What motivates behavior according to the theory? How does the theory explain why a person does what she/he is doing? Dynamics of Behavior ● Behavior is motivated by the unconscious desire to manage early object relations. ● The psyche constantly shifts between two fundamental positions: ○ Paranoid-Schizoid Position (0- months):
■ Infant sees objects
(caregivers) as either
completely good or bad.
■ Primitive defense
mechanisms like splitting, projection, and denial are used to cope with anxiety. ○ Depressive Position (6 months+): ■ Child integrates good and bad aspects of objects, realizing people can be both. ■ Leads to feelings of guilt, concern, and desire to repair damaged relationships. Development: How does the theory explain between human development, from infanity to old age? Development Across the Lifespan ● Early interactions with caregivers shape how individuals perceive relationships later in life. ● If the depressive position is successfully navigated, individuals develop emotional stability and empathy. ● Failure to integrate early object relations can result in emotional instability, trust issues, and relationship struggles. Psychopathology: What abnormal behavior patterns develop according to the theory? Psychopathology (Abnormal Behavior) ● Unresolved conflicts from early object relations can result in: ○ Splitting: Viewing people as entirely good or entirely bad. ○ Paranoia and excessive anxiety about relationships. ○ Difficulty forming stable, secure attachments. ○ Can contribute to personality disorders (e.g., borderline personality disorder), depression, and psychosis.
