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The Evolution of English: From
Old to Modern Varieties
The Evolution of the English Language
Old English
Old English was the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken by the Anglo-Saxons who arrived in the British Isles. It was a synthetic language, meaning that the relationship between words in a sentence was indicated through inflections. Adjectives were declined, and nouns had grammatical genders. Old English was formed by three main dialects: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. An example of Old English literature is the epic poem Beowulf.
Middle English
Middle English was the form of English spoken after the Norman conquest in 1066 until the late 15th century. It was based on the dialect of London and was influenced by French in terms of vocabulary and spelling. An example of Middle English literature is Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.
Modern English
Modern English is the form of English spoken since the Great Vowel Shift, a significant phonological change that occurred between 1450 and 1650. It is an analytical language, making extensive use of prepositions and relying on word order. Nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are inflected, while adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are invariable.
The Invention of the Printing Press
The invention of the printing press marked the division between Old English and Modern English, as books became more widespread and literacy increased. The printing press helped standardize English, as the written and spoken language of London began to dominate and the London standard became widely accepted, especially in more formal contexts. The change from Middle English to Early Modern English was not just a matter of vocabulary or pronunciation changing, but the beginning of a new era in the history of English, with a more standardized language and a richer lexicon.
The Great Vowel Shift
The Great Vowel Shift was a significant phonological change that occurred in English vowels between 1450 and 1650. During this shift, all long vowels changed their quality to a great extent, with each long vowel being pronounced with a greater elevation of the tongue and closing of the mouth. The causes of the Great Vowel Shift are highly debated, with some scholars arguing that it was due to the massive intake of Romance loanwords, while others suggest it was a result of the Renaissance and the demand for translations of Greek and Latin literature.
English as a Global Language
Britain's colonization, exploration, and overseas trade led to the development of new varieties of English, each with its own vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Recently, English has become a lingua franca, a global language that is regularly used and understood by many countries where English is not the first language. The use of English as a lingua franca for intercultural communication has led to the emergence of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) features, such as dropping the third-person present tense -s, confusing "who" and "which," and overusing certain verbs like "do," "make," and "have."
Kachru's Circle Model
Kachru described the spread of English in terms of three concentric circles: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle. The Inner Circle refers to the traditional bases of English, where English acts as a first language, such as the UK, USA, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. The Outer Circle includes countries where English is used in official contexts, but private interaction typically does not take place in English, such as Malaysia, Singapore, India, Kenya, and Ghana. The Expanding Circle contains countries where English is an important school subject and is used predominantly for interaction with foreigners, such as China, Japan, Greece, and Poland.
Prestige and Standardization
Varieties of English can be classified based on the type of prestige they give their speakers, distinguishing between overt and covert prestige. Some varieties may have no prestige, while others may be stigmatized but give covert status, and there are also standard or near-standard varieties that give both overt and covert prestige. Standardization is the process of developing a norm into a standard language, and varieties that share most features with the varieties used by British and American publishers can be called standard and typically have overt prestige.
The more populous Lowlands in the south with the capital Edinburgh The Western Isles (outer and inner Hebrides) The Northern Isles (Orkney and Shetland)
The Founder Population of Scotland
Celts from Ireland, representing the Gaelic language group Anglo-Saxons, in particular the 'tribe' known as Angles Scandinavian Vikings Anglo-Normans from England
Linguistic Varieties in Scotland
The linguistic area of Scotland is varied, with three main varieties: - (Scottish) Gaelic - the Celtic language of Scotland, used by the church - Scots - Many linguists consider Scots to be a language in its own right, closely related to English and descended from Old English. Reasons include its distinctive sound system, grammar, vocabulary, and literary tradition. - Scottish Standard English (SSE) - Standard English pronounced with a Scottish accent and with some Scotticisms in grammar and vocabulary
Syntax Features in Scots
Unmarked plurality in measure phrases (e.g., 50 year) Negation expressed by no, not, nae, or n't (e.g., She's no leaving) Use of the definite article before nouns denoting institutions and certain periods of time (e.g., the day, the morn, at the kirk)
Ireland
Historical Background
Ireland was formerly divided into four independent kingdoms: Connacht, Munster, Leinster, and Ulster. The Old Irish name for Ireland was Eriu, and the Romans referred to it as Hibernia. The earliest English settlers in Ireland came mostly for religious reasons, not as conquerors. English law was introduced to protect the colonists and disadvantage the Irish. The earliest colonists appear to have amalgamated with the Irish population, adopting their manners and language by the mid-14th century. During the Tudor and Stuart periods, English control was forcefully reasserted, and the use of the English language was mandated throughout Ireland.
Official Languages
The Republic of Ireland has two official languages: Irish and English.
Article 8 of the Irish constitution states that Irish is the national and first official language, while English is recognized as a second official language. There are no longer any people who speak only Irish, as it belongs to the Q-Celtic group of Celtic languages and is closely related to Scottish Gaelic.
Varieties of Irish English (IrE)
The two main politico-linguistic divisions are Southern and Northern, within and across which further varieties include: - Anglo-Irish - Hiberno-English - Ulster Scots - Varieties associated with the usage of the two capital cities, Dublin and Belfast
Salient Features of IrE
Phonology: Firm rhoticity, with a wide range of vowel oppositions in pre-r positions Merger of NURSE and SQUARE in Dublin speech, with hypercorrection Unmarked plurality in nouns indicating measure, time, etc. (e.g., two mile, five year) Three-dimensional deictic systems (this/that/yon) Distinction between singular you/ye and plural youse Grammar: Habitual be, varying in form between be/be's (southern) and do/does be (northern) Use of 'does be/do be' construction (e.g., 'they do be talking on their mobiles a lot') Lexicon: Derived from English, Scots, and Irish Irish words found in areas of culture, rural life, and words with different meanings from General English (e.g., backward, thick-witted, doubt, bold) Presence of Irishisms (e.g., begorrah)
United States
Historical Background
The English came to North America in the late 16th century, with the first permanent settlement in Virginia in 1609. Other European languages, such as Dutch, French, German, Spanish, Swedish, and Finnish, were also spoken in the colonies. Massive immigration from Europe, particularly Ireland, Scotland, and Germany, began in the 1830s. Since the 1970s, the majority of immigrants have come from Asia and South/Central America.
Canada
Historical Background
The name 'Canada' is derived from the Iroquois word 'kanata', meaning 'village' or 'settlement'. The English-speaking founder population of Canada can be related to two significant waves of immigration: Pro-British 'loyalists' who left the USA after the War of Independence Large groups of immigrants from Britain and Ireland in the 19th century
Official Languages
Canada has two official languages: English (mother tongue of almost 60% of the population) and French (22% native speakers).
Characteristics of Canadian English (CanE)
Phonology: Canadian raising, where the starting point of the diphthongs /au/ and / ai/ is raised when followed by voiceless consonants Use of the tag 'eh' as a discourse marker Lexical-distributional pronunciations like 'shone' Lexicon: Unique use of certain lexical items, often 'recycled' English words and French borrowings Morphology: Sentence-initial 'as well' is claimed to be uniquely Canadian Tendency to use 'have you got..?' Certain forms in the strong verb system, such as 'dove' and 'snuck'
Australia
Aboriginal Languages
The Aboriginal people in Australia belong to different tribes and once spoke around 200 different languages. Today, the Aborigines constitute no more than 2% of the country's population, and their languages have suffered massive death due to the presence of English as a 'killer language'.
Australian English (AusE)
AusE can be described as a variety in its own right, currently subject to influence from American English, such as in word stress (e.g., 'harass' with stress on the second syllable). Mitchell and Delbridge distinguished three main varieties of AusE:
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Australian English (AusE)
Broad and General Varieties
Australian English (AusE) has two main varieties:
Broad AusE : This variety is sometimes referred to as the 'acrolect' and shows the greatest affinity with Received Pronunciation (RP).
General AusE : This is the most important and well-researched ethnic variety of AusE. It is used as both a first and second language, particularly by Aborigines living in urban settings who have generally lost their indigenous languages.
Phonological Features
The salient phonological features of AusE include:
The front (a:) in PALM and START words. Wide, 'cockney-like' diphthongs in FLEECE, FACE, PRICE, GOOSE, GOAT, and MOUTH words. Close (but not as close as in New Zealand English) front vowels, especially in DRESS words. The use of two highly productive noun suffixes: -ie and -o (e.g., wharfie, docker). The special use of 'she' as a generic pronoun (e.g., "she's jake" meaning "it's fine"). A highly characteristic vocabulary (e.g., sheila 'girl', tucker 'food', drongo 'idiot').
Relationship to RP
While phonologically, AusE is very close to RP, phonetically it is quite different. The 'Cultivated' variety of AusE approximates RP in having 'unshifted' diphthongs.
Grammatical Features
AusE is characterized by the striking productivity of the -ie suffix, sometimes as a process of clipping and expanding. Other types of clipping are also common, such as 'beaut' for 'beauty' or 'beautiful', and 'uni' for 'university'.
Lexical Influences
Aboriginal languages have had little impact on AusE phonology or grammar, with the possible exception of the word-formation pattern known as reduplication. However, the Australian landscape, flora, and fauna led to the
South African English (SAfE)
History and Varieties
English came to South Africa around 1800, roughly at the same time as it arrived in Australia. The first real settlement took place in the eastern Cape in 1820, with the early settlers coming from various parts of the British Isles, predominantly from southern England, and mainly of working-class or lower middle-class backgrounds. In the 1850s, a new wave of immigrants arrived.
This led to the development of two main varieties of South African English:
Standard English was emulated as the prestige model in Natal. In other southern-hemisphere varieties of 'transported English', Received Pronunciation (RP) was the model until long after the Second World War, but has now been replaced by 'respectable SAfE'.
Phonological Features
Some salient phonological features of SAfE include:
The (a:) in BATH, PALM, and START words, like RP but unlike AusE and NZE. Allophonic variation in the KIT vowel (the KIT SPLIT). Unaspirated /p, t, k/ sounds, probably due to a substratum effect from Afrikaans.
SAfE is firmly non-rhotic, to the degree of not even having linking or intrusive /r/ as observed in a great number of its speakers.
Grammatical Features
The morphology and syntax of formal SAfE can hardly be distinguished from Standard English or General English. However, some features include:
The use of 'non-negative no' as a sentence initiator (e.g., "No, it is"). The use of 'busy' as a reinforcing marker of the progressive aspect (e.g., "he was busy lying in bed"). The use of 'is it?' as a kind of 'all-purpose response'.
Liberian English (LSE)
History and Varieties
The Republic of Liberia was founded in 1822 as a settlement for freed slaves from the USA and was proclaimed independent in 1847. English is its only official language and is also used as a first language by part of its population. Most of the first-language speakers of English in Liberia are descendants of 19th-century black American settlers.
Several varieties of Liberian English can be distinguished, but Liberian Settler English (clearly related to African American Vernacular English in the USA) is the true first-language variety.
Phonological Features
LSE has a rich vowel system, with qualitative contrasts between KIT and FLEECE, as well as between FOOT and GOOSE. Other features include:
The realization of the final vowel in words such as 'happy' as (e) rather than (i). The tendency to delete final consonants, especially /t/, /d/, and any fricative (e.g., 'klo' for 'clothes'). Great affinity with AAVE, such as the use of nonstandard forms in the verb phrase (e.g., "I do see boy all de time" for habitual, "he done come" for "he has come").
Lexical Features
LSE vocabulary includes reduplicated forms such as 'bugabug' ('termite') and retains older meanings, such as 'favour' in the sense of 'resemble'.
Caribbean English
History and Varieties
The English language came to the West Indies with the first settlements established in the early 17th century, making the Caribbean varieties some of the oldest in the history of the expansion of English.
Caribbean English at the creole end of the continuum is probably derived from the pidgin forms of communication used first between the slaves and the sailors during the time of the notorious 'Atlantic triangle'.
The largest English-speaking population is in Jamaica, where the speech community is defined as diglossic, with two varieties:
Jamaican Creole, popularly called Patwa (the 'low' variety, basilect- mesolect continuum). Jamaican English (the acrolect and 'high' variety).
Phonological Features
Salient phonological features of Caribbean English include:
Loss of final and preconsonantal historical /r/ in weak syllables. Th-stopping, characteristic of most non-acrolectal Caribbean accents. V-w confusion, mostly to the effect that initial v- is realized as (w). H-dropping, found in Jamaica, especially in Kingston, and to some extent in the Bahamas.
from the historically and culturally established British and American standards.
English as a Language in South Asia and
Africa
South Asian English
In most areas of South Asia, English is the ex-colonial language. A small group of South Asians have English as their mother tongue and ethnic identity. They are known as the 'Anglo-Indians'.
Theoretically, state schools in South Asia operate a 'three-language policy', where children learn the local language, Hindi, and English. Some salient features of South Asian English include:
Retroflex stops for /d/ and /t/ Syllable-timing and relatively lightly marked word stress Intonation characterized by rather short intonation units A characteristic vocabulary borrowed from substrate languages Stylistic features that may strike inner-circle readers as a mixture of levels
South Asian English is predominantly spelt in the British style. In comparison to British English, the most common constructions in Indian English are:
Monotransitive 'give something' and prepositional 'give something to someone', instead of the ditransitive 'give someone something' 'Pelt stones at someone', instead of 'pelt someone with something'
English in Africa
Four countries in East and Central Africa have some connections with English:
Rwanda, where English is currently replacing French as the language of government and education, driven by a desire to orient the country towards the English-speaking East African community. Somalia, where the Somali language coexists with English and Italian. Ethiopia, where secondary and higher education are mainly in English, but most other state functions are in Amharic or a regional language. Southern Sudan, where English is well-established and may shortly be the official language of an independent South Sudan.
Most sub-Saharan African states are extremely multilingual. The indigenous languages in sub-Saharan Africa mostly belong to three groups:
Afro-Asiatic, including Arabic, such as Hausa in Northern Nigeria and adjoining areas.
Cushitic/Sudanic and Nilotic in Ethiopia, Somalia, and northern Kenya and Uganda. Niger-Congo (the largest group).
In all the ex-British colonies throughout Africa, English remains the main language of education. There are at least three groups in Africa that have always had English as their mother tongue:
The black settlers in Liberia.
English in Africa
Those in Sierra Leone
The white settlers in South Africa have now shifted to English and have a distinctive variety.
African Englishes
Since the 1950s, Africa has produced a large literature in English, honoured in the 1986 Nobel Prize for Wole Soyinka and in the international success of novels by Chinua Achebe and others. African Englishes share some common features, partly because they often have a substratum in Bantu languages:
A smaller vowel set than inner-circle varieties, compensated for by spelling pronunciations and non-reduction of vowels. Spelling pronunciations are normal and predominant. Some vowel pronunciations used as identity markers. Word stress sometimes assigned according to local rules. Figurative expressions based on the substrate languages. In casual speech, long words which sound formal to inner-circle ears but do not necessarily have that value.
The accents of individual African speakers depend on their mother tongue, the area they grew up in, and how acrolectally they are speaking. The syntax of written standard African English is close to that of other Standard varieties. Some local features of syntax include:
'Because it will be partisan affair', where one might expect 'a partisan affair', reflects a local use of articles. A nonpartisan flavour would be expected and so organized that it would give contain a characteristic outer-circle use of would as a tentative or polite version of will rather than something required by the sequence of tenses. In seized upon by detractors to distract, the verb distract is intransitive, where inner-circle varieties might use an object such as attention.
Phonology
The vowel inventory is quite reduced. Dental fricatives are often realised as stops. Final consonant clusters are often simplified. Word-finally, most plosives/stops are omitted or reduced to glottal stops.
Syntax
Basilectal and mesolectal Singaporean/Malaysian English differs rather dramatically from the standard in terms of syntax. Subjects and objects can be omitted where they are clear from the context; Be as copula (and auxiliary) can be omitted; Questions like "What to do? Where to go?" are common and characteristic of Singapore/Malaysian usage; question words other than why and how are not usually fronted, and inversion is only usual when the verb has the be or can auxiliaries.
Lexis
The various lects of Singaporean/Malaysian English include a great deal of local vocabulary. Examples include chim/cheem 'excessively complex/ difficult/serious', chope 'reserve a chair, etc. by putting a bag or garment on it', and kiasu 'person with a fear of losing out to others'.
Tautonyms include send with the meaning of 'take' as in "send him to the airport", and peon 'office boy, office porter'. Heteronyms include borrowed words like makan 'food' and jaga 'watchman'. More specifically Malaysian examples are the foreignisms outstation 'provincial office' and the official term, bumi putra, a foreignism borrowed from Malay meaning 'a person with the Malaysian legal ethnic status of a "native'.
Pragmatics
One of the most striking features of much Singapore/Malaysia English is its use of pragmatic particles, mainly borrowed from dialects of Chinese.
English in Hong Kong
The local language of Hong Kong is Cantonese, a 'dialect' of Chinese: Cantonese and the other 'dialects' are tonal, typically have words of one or two syllables with few or no inflections, and have few consonant clusters and few possible final consonants. Today, English is very widely used in the education and legal systems and to deal with international business. As more and more young people in Hong Kong are English-educated, English is more and more a natural means of expression.
The phonology of this variety of English is similar but not identical with other South East Asian Englishes. The syntax of Hong Kong English includes many typical 'new English' simplifications, particularly in the noun phrase.
English in the Philippines
The Philippines became independent of the USA in 1948. Tagalog (renamed Filipino) was chosen as the national language. Nearly all adults understand Filipino and a high proportion can speak it. Knowledge of English is also widespread.
Philippine English derives from US English, normally uses US spelling conventions and vocabulary variants, and is rhotic. The vowel inventory is reduced in ways typical of 'New Englishes'.
Phonology
Philippine English is largely syllable-timed, with unstressed vowels often given their full spelling pronunciation. Dental fricatives may be realised as stops, as may /f v/. Under influence from the indigenous languages, Philippine English often has unaspirated voiceless stops at the beginnings of words and unreleased stops at the end of words.
Syntax
Typical features of informal writing and speech include omission of 'redundant' subjects, and optional marking of verb agreement and plurality.
Lexis
Philippine English tends to be full of code-switching and mixing. One can identify local lexicalisations, either coined in English or borrowed (e.g. from Tagalog 'barong'/'shirt').
Pragmatics
Functional phrases differ between varieties. In the Philippines one can say "for a while" when answering the telephone, instead of just "a moment". Code-mixing English and Tagalog is a characteristic way for educated people to vary style.
English in the Mediterranean
Three territories in the Mediterranean were occupied by Britain long enough for the English language to have retained some official or at least public functions there and are now bilingual:
Gibraltar - Spanish at home and English on official occasions, both at school. The island of Malta - Maltese for most purposes but English official language. The island of Cyprus - Mainly Greek, but combines bidialectalism with bilingualism.
French and German, as well as their mother tongue if it was another European language.
As the nineteenth century ran on, American traders and imperial expansion increased the presence of English in world trade. Throughout the twentieth century, English became more and more widely known as a consequence of US military power, the attractiveness of US popular culture and the superiority of US technology, science and scholarship.
In the expanding circle, other languages than English are used for official purposes, but English may still be used as a lingua franca within groups who are not part of the local language community. English comes to be used for international diplomacy, international organisations, research publication, business negotiations, and casual chats.
English in International Organisations
Some international organisations choose a single working language because it is known to many people in all their member states. The Commonwealth of Nations uses English. The EU has no official working language, and its official languages are those of the member states. In EU institutions, anyone has the right to use any language and interpreting or translation will be provided. But the knowledge of English is becoming a presupposed skill in educated people and the language increasingly has lingua-franca functions in academic, business and everyday interactions in Europe. Most of the day- to-day work of the Union goes on in English or French.
English in Business
English is increasingly used as a corporate or company language in multinational corporations, including corporations headquartered outside the inner and outer circles. In some cases, English is used mostly for external communication; in other cases English is used to a large degree within the individual company units due to the presence of international experts. In both cases, English is the default lingua franca and local languages are used alongside English. English is often introduced to eliminate the difficulties that occur due to the linguistic diversity of multilingual companies.
English in Internet Communication
Internet communication can be in any language, but usually the material is provided in English. Blogs and online games may attract participants from all over the world and thus become typical lingua-franca situations. Internet surfing of any kind is likely to lead users to material in English. The technology itself leads to use of English in preference to a language with a very different writing system.
English as a Lingua Franca
The Concept of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
The term "English as a lingua franca" (ELF) refers to the teaching, learning, and use of the English language as a common means of communication (or contact language) for speakers of different native languages. Most contemporary linguists regard ELF as a valuable means of international communication and a worthwhile object of study.
Characteristics of ELF
Communication Context : ELF is used in contexts where speakers with different first languages (L1s) need it as their means to communicate with each other. In the past, the term "English as an International Language (EIL)" was used to refer to native speakers of English, while ELF was reserved for non-native communication.
Speakers : ELF is primarily used by non-native speakers of English, who outnumber native speakers globally. These speakers come from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
Flexibility and Adaptability : ELF is a flexible and adaptable form of English, which allows for variations in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary to accommodate the needs of its diverse users.
Focus on Effective Communication : The primary goal of ELF is to facilitate effective communication, rather than adherence to a specific standard of "correct" English.
Evolving Nature : ELF is an evolving form of English, with new features and patterns emerging as it is used in various international contexts.
Linguistic Features of ELF
Spelling
The focus in studies of ELF has been on speech. Informal conversational writing in ELF shows a variety of spellings typical of other environments, but there is no sign that the eccentric spelling system of Standard English is being adapted.
Phonetics and Phonology
Proficient speakers of English in the expanding circle (countries where English is not an official language) have the accent of their own language background. However, inner-circle (where English is the primary language) and outer-circle (where English has official status) speakers of English with
