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PSY 402 TEST BANK EXAM 2 QUESTIONS & ANSWERS LATEST 2025-2026, Exams of Psychology

The University of ManchesterPsychology

PSY 402 TEST BANK EXAM 2 QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWERS LATEST 2025-2026 GRADED A

Typology: Exams

2024/2025

Available from 07/10/2025

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PSY 402 TEST BANK EXAM 2
QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWERS
LATEST 2025-2026 GRADED A
"Subject Variables" - ANS• Motivation
• Anxiety
• Illness
• Medications
• Hormones
• Sleep
-etc
- its possible that other issues may end up effecting test scores
[di|poly]chotomous Issues - ANSPros:
• neutral, fair scoring
• Types of knowledge:
• Recall vs. Recognition
• Receptive vs. Expressive
• Skill =? test taking ability
• Solution: Essay test format
4 Kinds of Validity - ANSFace, Content, Criterion, Construct
Accessing Knowledge - ANSRecalling information is different than
Recognizing it
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Download PSY 402 TEST BANK EXAM 2 QUESTIONS & ANSWERS LATEST 2025-2026 and more Exams Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!

PSY 402 TEST BANK EXAM 2

QUESTIONS AND DETAILED ANSWERS

LATEST 2025-2026 GRADED A

"Subject Variables" - ANS• Motivation

  • Anxiety
  • Illness
  • Medications
  • Hormones
  • Sleep -etc
  • its possible that other issues may end up effecting test scores [di|poly]chotomous Issues - ANSPros:
  • neutral, fair scoring
  • Types of knowledge:
  • Recall vs. Recognition
  • Receptive vs. Expressive
  • Skill =? test taking ability
  • Solution: Essay test format 4 Kinds of Validity - ANSFace, Content, Criterion, Construct Accessing Knowledge - ANSRecalling information is different than Recognizing it
  • Neuropsychology suggests different brain systems. Recall can be stronger or weaker than Recognition
  • Issues for testing:
  • What type of access is involved in polychotomous testing?
  • Is it fair to test using a method which prefers one type over the other? Advice from textbooks - ANS- Dont use "all of the above" (80%)
  • Dont use none of the above (75%) -all choices should be plausible (70%) -negative wording shouldn't not be un-used (55%) All Validity is Construct Validity? - ANSModern theory: only one type of validity -- Construct validity
  • Other types of validity are just sub-types of Construct validity Are your intestines too long? - ANSExpectancy effects higher on tests with subjective scoring
  • Cannell (1974) : "yes" answers to physical symptoms increased when interviewer gave approving nod.
  • Yes answers increased to nonsense questions: "Do the ends of your hair itch"
  • Reactivity...
  • Drift...
  • Expectancies... Behavioral Observation - ANS• Deception and Malingering...
  • The Low Base Rate /False Positive Paradox... Category (Rating Scale) Format - ANSSimilar to Likert format, but #s are used instead
  • Pros -- responses are more precise than with Likert scales (10 vs. 5 or 6)
  • Cons -- context effects stronger
  • Solution: clearly define endpoints
  • Precision vs. Accuracy? Category Example - ANSOn a 1 to 10 scale how much do you like your partner? 1 Planning to break up 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 Planning to get Married soon

  • Issues:
  • Unbalanced (is 5 or 6 the middle?)
  • Hard to interpret : what does a "2" or "3" really mean? Ceiling effect: - ANSmany scores near the top range of possible scores Charles Spearman - ANS"The proof and measurement of association between two things" - Rho - correlation for Ordinal variables. Field: intelligence; Contributions: found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability) Classical Test-Score Theory - ANSTrue score (T) : the "actual" score that exists
  • Observed score (X) : score as measured by a test
  • Error (E) : difference between Observed and True score
  • X = T + E
  • E = X - T
  • Assumptions: True scores have no variability. Errors are random (e.g. a normal distribution with mean of zero)
  • Reliability = correlation between Observed score and True score Confidence Interval - ANS• "How likely is a true score to fall within a range"

psychological concepts (example: Intelligence / IQ)

  • Problem: how to measure validity of a test if the criterion can't be measured? Construct Validity 2 - ANSSolution -- the world is complicated. In Psychology (as in other sciences) things can exist even if they aren't easy to measure.
  • Method -- collect evidence for the construct via multiple methods, multiple sources, multiple subjects Constructs & Measurement - ANSPsychology as "soft science"
  • Construct
  • exists but can't be directly measured
  • examples
  • Measurement
  • "true value" - intelligence
  • measured or observed value (e.g. IQ test score)
  • discrepancy - "error" Constructs, Factors, Facets - ANSConstructs may be "high" or "low" (also called "top" or "bottom")
  • Top-level constructs are made of smaller constructs
  • aka Factors, Facets,

Dimensions, Domains... Content Validity - ANS• Do the test questions do a good job covering the content?

  • Most related to educational settings (achievement/aptitude testing)
  • E.g. does an Algebra test contain questions about Algebra?
  • A Logical, rather than statistical argument
  • Somewhat fuzzy definition
  • Modern theories consider Content Validity a sub-set of other types of validity Content validity - ANSDescription: does test questions cover the topic? Notes: logic and judgment - no stats to calculate Content Validity 2 - ANSIf a test is supposed to test a specific Construct, problems may arise:
  • Construct underrepresentation
  • test misses important information
  • Construct-irrelevant variance
  • scores are influenced by outside factors
  • e.g. anxiety, reading comprehension, IQ, etc. Convergent Validity - ANS• Multiple factors within a construct

M = 1/5 = 20%)

  • A student takes the test, guesses on each item, and gets 20 correct (P*N = 0.2 * 100 = 20)
  • Correction for guessing subtracts (1/M-1) points for each wrong answer = 1/(5-1) = 1/4 = 0.25 points.
  • Adjusted score? Criterion Validity - ANS• Criterion -- a well defined measure of performance in the real world
  • Criterion validity -- the correlation between a test score and the specific criterion
  • Predictive vs. Concurrent
  • Predictive High School SAT score (predictor) predicts later College GPA (criterion)
  • Concurrent Work samples from mechanics Criterion Validity - ANSDescription: does the test predict a specific event? Notes: requires a well defined criteria Stat: Pearsons R correlation - between test and criteria Criterion-referenced Test - ANSInstead of arbitrary criteria such as "70% = pass" use one with more validity.
  • Criteria = the learning outcome(s) desired
  • Method:
  • create a good test
  • give it to two groups of students
  • those who have had the material
  • those who have not
  • Determine cut-point score from histogram Deception - ANSPeople are very poor at detecting deception
  • Polygraph "Lie Detector" tests
  • invented in 1921 by John Larson (medical student and police officer in Berkeley CA)
  • developed to scientifically measure deception
  • Theory: physiological responses happen when subject lies, and can be measured objectively. Definitions of Validity - ANS• Agreement between test scores and the thing (construct) it claims to measure
  • Many other definitions; some confusing or incompatible with each other
  • AREA/NCME (1985, 1999, 2012) "Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing"
  • One informal definition: Face Validity
  • Three formal definitions: Content, Criterion, Construct
  • Point Biserial
  • p.b. correlation between item and test score
  • low or negative values represent "bad" items Disparate Impact - ANS• aka "Adverse Impact"... • disproportional... • adverse effect... • on a protected class Disproportionate - ANSThe proportion of a protected class affected by the behavior is different from a nonprotected class
  • 80% rule
  • Example
  • 50% of men are hired
  • 45% of women are hired
  • 45/50 = 90% Distractors? - ANSToo few distractors --> dichotomous
  • Too many distractors --> slow, confusing
  • Optimal is 3-5 distractors. Thus, most multiple-choice tests should have between 4 and 6 possible answers per question.
  • Distractors should cover a wide range of abilities w/o being cute or trite Divergent Validity - ANSOther factors (not part of a construct)
  • Should have low to zero correlation

Does Face Validity Matter? - ANS• Naive view = face validity

  • Tests with very little face validity...
  • what does the average test taker feel about the test?
  • motivation?
  • confusion? Domain Sampling - ANS(1) A sample of behaviors from all possible behaviors that could be indicative of a particular construct; (2) a sample of test items from all possible items that could be used to measure a particular construct. How to calculate r1T
  • Any two tests r
  • r1j = average of all pairs Domain Sampling - ANS• Problem: no way to measure True score / no possible way to measure every possible item
  • Sample a limited subset of items, do this in multiple ways
  • Create one or more tests
  • For two given tests, correlation between the two tests will be lower than the correlation between one test and the True score
  • r1t = √r1j
  • Different subjects
  • Different situation
  • Different criterion Example of a poor test item? - ANSWhat is 0.4 plus 0. (A) 0. (B) 0. (C) 0. (D).
  • Is answering (A) better or worse than answering (D)? Expectancies in Beh. Obs. - ANSExpectancy effects, in Behavioral Observation situations, are similar to those seen in Testing
  • Effects are subtle, small, but real and can be a significant problem in some contexts
  • Effects seem to be largest when Observer is rewarded for reporting certain behaviors. Expectancy Effects - ANSfinding evidence biased towards a pre-existing hypothesis... -have a subject & an examiner, examiner giving test to subject - examiner might ASSUME student is smart and gives them extra points

Expectancy Effects: Rosenthal (1966) - ANSRate faces on "Success" or "Failure"

  • All subjects get same faces, but
  • Half told faces were successful people.
  • Result: were about 1 point higher (on a 20 point scale)
  • Conclusion: expectation influences judgement
  • Effects even seen when rating non-humans (e.g. rats) Expectancy Effects: Testing - ANSSattler et al. (1970): expectancy effects when rating ambiguous response on an IQ test.
  • same response given to raters
  • Half told it is a "smart" child.
  • Results: "smart" children scored better.
  • Satler (1998)
  • same even when the test answer was not ambiguous.
  • Literature Review: inconsistent results, which are small
  • Conclusion: small, but real problem, design tests with clear scoring rules External Criteria - ANS• Internal Criteria = total test score
  • External Criteria = thing that actually matters (e.g. "do you crash the plane")

single test reduces reliability

  • Methods:
  • Informal — remove items with poor face validity (chapter 5)
  • Statistical:
  • Discriminability Analysis (chapter 6)
  • Factor Analysis (chapter 13) Griggs v. Duke Power - 2 - ANSSupreme court found If a test impacts different ethnic groups disparately, the business must demonstrate the test is a "reasonable measure of job performance"
  • In scientific terms: tests must be valid predictors of specific criteria. Griggs v. Duke Power (1971) - ANS• Group of l3 people employed as laborers -- sweeping & cleaning
  • Wanted to be promoted to next higher classification (coal handler)
  • Duke Power company required passing score on IQ test to be promoted
  • Of 95 employees at power station, 14 were Black, 13 of 14 were assigned sweeping/cleaning duties
  • Court case -- was the IQ test requirement valid or discriminatory?
  • Supreme Court decision : "invalid" Guessing : Expected Score - ANSProbability of getting any item correct, using a random guessing strategy, p is equal to 1 divided by the # of answers.
  • On a dichotomous (T/F) test the probability P = 1/2 = 50% = 0.
  • On a multiple choice test with M answers per question, the probability = 1 / M. For a 4 item test P= 1/4 = .25 = 25%
  • Total score due to guessing = # of questions times average score per item or N * P.
  • Example: an 100 item test with 4 answers Guessing : Probability - ANS• M = # of answer choices per question
  • Pcorrect with random guessing = 1/M
  • On a dichotomous (T/F), P = ____
  • On a multiple choice test with M answers per question, the probability = ______
  • Total score from guessing:
  • Nquestions x Pcorrect How many choices in question? - ANS• Research suggests optimal # of choices is between 4 and 7
  • Using up to 10 choices is OK if