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Fine-tune Your English
Section – A
The Sentence and its Structure
CHAPTER- 1
How to Write an Effective Sentence
Effective Sentence
―If a sentence serves the purpose for which it is meant, it can be called
an effective sentence.‖
Two Parts of a Sentence - Subject and Predicate
The subject is always a noun or a noun equivalent.
The key word in a predicate is a verb.
The children are playing.
(Subject – Noun Part) (Predicate–Verb Part)
A simple sentence can be made more complicated by enlarging the subject and
extending the predicate by adding modifiers.
Eg:-Children are playing
Chita‘s children are playing hide and seek.
(Enlargement) (Extension)
Guidelines for writing an effective sentence
1. Effective writing cautions the writer to be positive rather than negative.
(Avoid negatives –‗no‘, ‗not‘)
2. Good sentence prefers Specificity to Generality.
3. Judicious use of Figurative language. An abstract idea receives concreteness when
expressed in Figurative language.
4. Monotony must be got over.
5. Put important words and ideas in the beginning and end of a sentence.
Periodic Sentence-Keeps the reader in suspense by placing the verb at the very end.
6. Use appropriate/precise words- Ample justification for each word.
7. Inadequate subordination of lesser ideas makes a sentence clumsy. Use subordinate
conjunctions to combine ideas.
8. Avoid Faulty Parallelism and Mixed Metaphors.
To avoid Faulty Parallelism- All the ideas of a series should be of the same word
class.
9. Golden rule of writing- Avoid dangling modifiers
Extra Points
Knowledge of figure of speech helps in writing an effective sentence
Use passive voice only if there is a real need.
Avoid informal and slangy expressions.
Prepositional Phrase - Prepositional phrase is a series of words made up of a preposition and its object. The object may be a noun, pronoun, gerund or clause. A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb.
Eg: The boy with him is his son.
The store at the corner sells sandwiches
Absolute Phrase
A phrase with a subject and a partial predicate of its own is called an
absolute phrase.
Verbless Phrase
A phrase that contains no element of verb is called a verbless phrase.
Eg: When young, Blunt the donkey was a champion.
Finite and Non-Finite verbs
- Finite verbs show tense, person, number etc. Eg: is, are, am
- Non finite verbs do not show tense, person, number etc. Infinitives and participles are
also non finite verbs or verbals.
Eg: be, being , been
Bare Infinitive: Play To Infinitive: Toplay
Present Participles: Playing Past Participle: Played
CHAPTER- Clauses
- A group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a subject and predicate,
is called a clause.
Eg: I think that youhave made a mistake.
(Clause)
Main Clause / Independent Clause : The part of the sentence that can stand alone as its
own sentence.
Subordinate / Dependent Clause: The part of the sentence that cannot stand alone as
its own sentence.
CHAPTER-
NOUN CLAUSE
A noun clause is a dependent clause that does the function of a Noun in a sentence.
Eg: I expect to get a prize.
(Noun Phrase)
You must remember that you are not children.
Functions of a Noun Clause
1. Noun clause can be used as a Subject in a sentence.
Eg: What he said is totally false.
2. Noun clause can be used as an object of a verb
Eg: We were really surprised at what has happened.
3. Noun clauses can be used as complements.
Eg: The question is why such things should happen.
4. Noun clause functions as appositives.
Eg: The belief that diseases are God‘s punishment is absolutely wrong.
CHAPTER- 4
ADVERB CLAUSE
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that does the work of an adverb in a sentence.
Types of Adverb Clauses
- Adverb clause of TIME
- Adverb clause of PLACE
- Adverb clause of PURPOSE
- Adverb clause of EFFECT
- Adverb clause of DEGREE
- Adverb clause of CONDITION
- Adverb clause of CONCESSION
- Adverb clause of REASON
- Adverb clause of MANNER
CHAPTER -
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE
Relative clauses are clauses starting with the relative pronouns who, that, which, whose, where, when. They are most often used to define or identify the noun that precedes them.
Defining Relative Clause : A relative clause which identifies the noun it qualifies is a defining relative clause. The removal of a defining relative clause will collapse the whole sentence as it is an integral part of the sentence. It is also called a restrictive / essential relative clause.
E.g.: The woman who supplies milk is moving out.
Non Defining Relative Clause: This relative clause merely imparts information. The removal of a non - defining relative clause does not affect the structure of a sentence. E.g.: The elephant, which is largest of all land animals, is found in Asia and Africa.
CHAPTER -
TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is defined as a word or word class that connects words or constructions.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions : Used to connect two sentences of equal rank
- Cumulative Conjunction (and, also, both)
- Alternative Conjunction (either…or, neither…nor)
- Adversative Conjunction (still, yet, however, but)
- Illative Conjunction(therefore, so, then)
Subordinate Conjunctions : Used to connect one main idea to a dependent idea TIME (when, as soon as, before, after), PURPOSE (in order that, so that),
CONDITION (if, unless, that), CONCESSION (though, although), REASON (because, since, as), MANNER (so far as, as if)
COMPARISON (than, no less than), RESULT (so… that)
Section – B
Word-Classes and Related Topics
CHAPTER - Understanding the Verbs
Physical Verbs – Definition and Examples Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can create a motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you use to describe it is most likely a physical verb.
The physical verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
Let‘s run to the corner and back. I hear the train coming.
Mental Verbs – Definition and Examples Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering, understanding, thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive state.
The mental verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
I know the answer. She recognized me from across the room. Do you believe everything people tell you?
States of Being Verbs – Definition and Examples Also known as linking verbs , state of being verbs describe conditions or situations that exist. State of being verbs are inactive since no action is being performed. These verbs are usually complemented by adjectives.
The state of being verbs in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
I am a student.
Regular Verbs These are verbs which form the past and past participle by the addition of the suffix – d/-ed as laugh + -ed = laughed love + -d = loved Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs are those that don‘t take on the regular spelling patterns of past simple and past participle verbs but have a change of internal vowel for the Pst and past participle.
Basic Forms of Verbs
Infinitive Simple Present - ing form Simple past - ed/-en/-t form
Love love loving loved loved
Walk walk walking walked walked
Give give giving gave given
Take take taking took taken
Dream dream dreaming dreamed/-t dreamed/-t
ASPECT: is a verb form (or category) that indicates time-related characteristics, such as the completion, duration, or repetition of an action.
The two primary aspects in English are the perfect (sometimes called perfective ) and the progressive (also known as the continuous form). As illustrated below, these two aspects may be combined to form the perfect progressive.
In English, aspect is expressed by means of particles, separate verbs, and verb phrases.
Perfect Aspect The perfect aspect describes events occurring in the past but linked to a later time, usually the present. The perfect aspect is formed with has , have , or had + the past participle. It occurs in two forms:
Perfect Aspect, Present Tense: "History has remembered the kings and warriors, because they destroyed; art has remembered the people, because they created." Perfect Aspect, Past Tense: "At fifteen life had taught me undeniably that surrender, in its place, was as honorable as
resistance, especially if one had no choice."
Progressive Aspect The progressive aspect usually describes an event that takes place during a limited time period. The progressive aspect is made up of a form of be + the -ing form of the main verb.
Progressive Aspect, Present Tense: "She's loyal and is trying to wear her thin flippy hair in cornrows." Progressive Aspect, Past Tense: "I was reading the dictionary. I thought it was a poem about everything."
The Difference Between Tense and Aspect "Traditionally... both aspects [perfect and progressive] are treated as part of the tense system in English, and mention is made of tenses such as the present progressive (e.g. We are waiting ), the present perfect progressive (e.g. We have been waiting ), and the past perfect progressive (e.g. We had been waiting ), with the latter two combining two aspects. There is a distinction to be made, however, between tense and aspect. Tense is concerned with how time is encoded in the grammar of English, and is often based on morphological form (e.g. write, writes, wrote ); aspect is concerned with the unfolding of a situation, and in English is a matter of syntax, using the verb be to form the progressive, and the verb have to form the perfect. For this reason combinations like those above are nowadays referred to as constructions (e.g. the progressive construction , the present perfect progressive construction )."
"be" as a full verb
The verb be can also be a full verb. In this case, it's not followed by another verb. If be is used as a full verb, we do not need an auxiliary in negative sentences or questions.
positive sentence : They are fifteen years old.
negative sentence : They are not fifteen years old. question : Are they fifteen years old?
2."Do" as an auxiliary verb
Used in negative sentences / questions: to form negative sentences or questions using ‘do’ as a full verb, another ‘do’ is needed as an auxiliary.
negative sentence: She doesn'tdo her homework every day. I do not know the truth. She doesn't agree with me. They didn't arrive here yet.
question: Does she do her homework every day? Do you want to have another one? Did he finish his homework? Do we need to keep going straight?
The full verb "do"
As a full verb we use do in certain expressions.
positive sentence: She does her homework every day.
3."Have" as an auxiliary verb
Used in perfect sentences:
I have been following you for a mile. We have done a lot so far. She had been queen of the town.
"have" in positive sentences
As a full verb have indicates possession. I have a car. "have" in negative sentences and questions I do not have a car.
Permission: can, could, may Can we come in? Could we possibly stay at our flat? Staff may take their break between 12 and 2. (written ) May I sit here? (formal)
Prohibition: cannot, may not, must not You mustn’t tell her anything. You can’t get up until you‘re better. Crockery may not be taken out of the canteen. (written) You must not begin until I tell you. (formal)
Obligation: have (got) to, must All visitors must report to reception on arrival. (written) I must get that report finished today. Do you have to write your name on the form? She had to throw the burnt cake away. You will have to wait, I‘m afraid.
No necessity: don’t have to, shouldn’t have to, don’t need to You don’t have to pick us up. We shall take a taxi. They didn’t have to go through customs. You shouldn’t have bothered making lunch. He didn’t need to have any fillings at the dentist‘s. They needn’t have waited.
Advice and criticism: ought to, should Ought we to/ should we write and thank him? She ought to /s hould go out more often. You ought to have/should have gone to bed earlier. You shouldn’t borrow the car without asking. I ought to/should go on a diet. I ought to have / should have asked her first.
Assumptions and deductions: will, should, must, can’t That will be James – he is often early. The book should be interesting. There mustbe a leak. You must have dialed the wrong number. You can’t have finished already!
Requests: can, could, will, would Can you pass me the dictionary?
Could you help me with my translation? Will you buy me an ice cream, Dad? Would you type this letter for me, please?
( Could and would are more formal than can and will .)
Offers and suggestions: shall, will Shall I do the washing? Shall we go now? I will take you to the airport.
