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ETHICS | MIDTERMS
MODULE 4
LESSON 1: Relationship between Ethics and Religion The difference between Ethics and Religion What is Ethics?
- The term ethics is derived from the Greek word "ethos," which means "way of living
- It is defined as a system of moral principles which guide people make decision and lead their lives. It is concerned with what is good and right for persons and society. What is Religion?
- The term "religion" refers to a collection of institutionalized ideas, customs, and institutions.
- An organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to worship a god or a group of gods.
- "Religion is based on the fact that God reveals insight about life and its meaning are compiled in text (the bible, the torah, the koran, etc) and introduced as revelation between. Ethics and religion are concerned with the most fundamental question of human existence. Religion draws answers to what is moral and ethical from revelation as written in Scriptures and as lived by Jesus Christ. Ethics gets its answers to what is moral and ethical from reason and experiences. The ways in which Religion depends on ethics
- Ethics is concerned with the way we ought to conduct our lives. Clearly, then, it is an integral part of biblical revelation.
- Accordingly, the greatest knowledge, knowledge of God, requires us first to trust in Him and believe what He says, for we can only know God from what He reveals about Himself to us.
- Ethics is used as a lens for understanding God.
- Ethics and the knowledge of God highlights the crucial role of ethics in shaping religious beliefs and practices.
- Religion and ethics are treated as the same thing, with various religions making claims about their belief systems being the best way for people to live, actively proselytizing and trying to convert unbelievers, trying to legislate public behaviors based around isolated religious passages.
- While religion can provide a valuable framework for ethical decision-making, it is not the only source of ethical guidance. Ethical principles can also be derived from secular sources such as philosophy, human rights, and cultural norms. LESSON 2: Universal Values Universal Values
- Set of Core Principles or Beliefs shared by people across different cultures, societies, and historical periods. Universal Values in Ethics Caring Citizenship Fairness Respect Responsibility Trustworthy Caring - A relational and context-bound approach to morality and judgement used by the feminist philosophical perspective. Normative ethical theory and beliefs on the nature of morality are both covered under the phrase “ethics of care”. Example 1: Charitable Giving: Imagine a scenario where a person, despite facing financial constraints, decides to donate a significant portion of their income to a charitable organization that provides food, shelter, and healthcare to impoverished communities. Example 2: Animal Welfare: Consider a scenario where a group of researchers is conducting experiments on animals for scientific purposes. Ethical considerations of caring for the well-being of these animals come into play. Citizenship - The field of public ethics that deals with what constitutes proper conduct for citizens in
public spaces. In relation to opportunities for healthcare professionals in their target communities, this article defines citizenship ethics and discusses the ethics of individual and group citizens. Example 1: Equal Access to Healthcare: Imagine a society where citizenship is not valued, and access to healthcare is determined solely by one's wealth or social status. Example 2: Voting Rights and Representation: In a democratic society, citizenship is the foundation of political participation. Consider a scenario where certain groups of people, based on arbitrary factors, are denied the right to vote or participate in the decision-making process. This would undermine the principles of democratic governance, where each citizen's voice should carry equal weight. Fairness - The outcome of moral judgment, or the method by which people decide what is ethically right and bad. Two different traditions, the justice reasoning approach and the care reasoning approach, have both been used to study and critique moral thinking. Example 1: Equal Pay for Equal Work: Imagine a workplace where employees are paid based on arbitrary factors like gender or race rather than their qualifications or the work they perform. In this scenario, the principle of fairness is violated as individuals are not being treated equitably. Example 2: College Admissions Based on Merit: Consider a situation where prestigious universities admit students primarily based on their family connections or financial contributions rather than their academic achievements and potential. Respect - Means that you accept people for who they are, even if they disagree with you or are different from you. Respect in relationships fosters feelings of trust, safety, and well-being. Respect doesn't have to come automatically; it is something you can learn. Example 1: Respect for Cultural Diversity: Imagine a multicultural society where various cultural, religious, and ethnic groups coexist. In this scenario, the principle of respect is essential to maintain harmony and understanding among these diverse communities. Example 2: Patient-Doctor Relationship: Consider a healthcare setting where a patient is treated with disrespect and condescension by their healthcare provider. In this situation, the ethical principle of respect is violated, as the patient's autonomy, dignity, and feelings are not being acknowledged. Responsibility - The ability to identify, understand, and apply a variety of principles and values in accordance with the norm in a particular area and/or context. Example 1: Environmental Stewardship: Imagine a corporation that operates without regard for the environment, releasing pollutants and contributing to environmental degradation. In this scenario, the ethical principle of responsibility is overlooked, as the corporation is not taking responsibility for its impact on the planet. Example 2: Parental Responsibility: Consider a family where parents neglect their children's physical and emotional needs, exposing them to harm and neglect. In this situation, the ethical principle of responsibility is violated, as the parents are not fulfilling their responsibilities towards their children's well-being and development. Trustworthiness - the quality of being deserving of trust or confidence; dependability; reliability. Example 1: Trustworthy People: They keep their promises. Their “yes” means yes, and their “no” means no. LESSON 3: How Moral Character Developed Albert Bandura - suggest that observation and modeling plays a primary role in how and why people learn. Moral character is formed by one's actions. habits actions and; emotional responses Factors Influencing Moral Character Development
1. Early Childhood and Family (Role of Caregivers) Parents and caregivers play a pivotal role in shaping a child's moral development. Children learn by observing how adults treat others and by receiving guidance on right and wrong.
Stages of moral character development Lawrence Kohlberg - was an American psychologist and educator known for his theory of moral development.
- Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood.
- He grouped these stages into three broad categories of moral reasoning, pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development. Level of Moral Development (Kohlberg) The Preconventional level : children accept the authority (and moral code) of others. If an action leads to punishment, it must be bad. If it leads to a reward, it must be good. The Conventional level : children believe that social rules and the expectations of others determine what is acceptable or unacceptable behavior. The Postconventional level: here what is right is based on an individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles.
- Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget’s (1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.
- In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual unfairly treated. **Stages of moral character development Kohlberg's moral development
- PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY** - The first level of moral development, lasting until approximately age 8. During this level, children accept the authority of others.
- This level of morality is mostly based on what authority figures like parents or teachers tell you to do rather than what you think is right or wrong. 2. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY -The adolescent phase of moral development focused on societal norms and external expectations to discern right from wrong, often grounded in tradition, cultural practices, or established codes of conduct. -People who follow conventional morality believe that it’s important to follow society’s rules and expectations to maintain order and prevent problems. 3. POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY -The third level of moral development and is characterized by an individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles.
- This means that people at this level of morality have their own ethical principles and values and don’t just do what society tells them to do. At this level, people think about what is fair, what is just, and what values are important. MODULE 5 LESSON 1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE & ETHICS What is ethics? Ethics refers to deciding what’s right and what’s wrong. Making ethical decisions involves weighing right and wrong in order to make the best choice. What is Science? Science is a way of learning about what is in the natural world, how the natural world works, and how the natural world got to be the way it is. It is not simply a collection of facts; rather it is a path to understanding. Relation between Science and Ethics Ethics of Science refers to the systematic reconstruction of ethical principles and orientations that guide scientific actions and decision-making. It encompasses the specific moral values and responsibilities of scientists in their pursuit of truth, as well as the ethical considerations in the generation and application of scientific knowledge, particularly in fields like medical research and biosciences.
SCIENTIFIC ASPECT
The discipline of the ethics of science is concerned with the systematic reconstruction of those specific orientations for action that are determined by the understanding, immanent in each field of science in respect of its individual subject area, and the understanding of the scientific procedures for its description and explanation and an appreciation of the possibilities for action opened up by scientific knowledge. In this, ethics of science shall be understood as a part of philosophical ethics that refers to a specific, societal field of action determined by particular forms of knowledge. Above all, ethics of science, in respect of the task on hand, has to deal with two interrelated areas of phenomena First, ethics of science draws on the specific ethos of the scientific community in order to reconstruct those orientations to which the scientist is committed, in the interest of seeking out the truth. This involves a smooth, unbroken transition from general rules of action (e.g., the prohibition of falsifying research results) to specific regulations for individual disciplines within the framework of their respective methodology. Second, ethics of science concerns itself with the relationship between general moral orientations and the problems of generating and applying scientific knowledge. Both in generating and applying, it is primarily a question of the practical consequences resulting from technical knowledge. Ethical Rules in Science Ethics is an important consideration in science. Scientific investigations must be guided by what is right and what is wrong. That’s where ethical rules come in. They help ensure that science is done safely and that scientific knowledge is reliable. Scientific research must be reported honestly. It is wrong and misleading to make up or change research results. Scientific researchers must try to see things as they really are. They should avoid being biased by the results they expect or hope to get. Researchers must be careful. They should do whatever they can to avoid errors in their data. Researchers must inform coworkers and members of the community about any risks of their research. They should do the research only if they have the consent of these groups. Researchers studying living animals must treat them humanely. They should provide for their needs and take pains to avoid harming them. Researchers studying human subjects must tell their subjects that they have the right to refuse to participate in the research. Human subjects also must be fully informed about their role in the research, including any potential risks. Human subjects also must be fully informed about their role in the research, including any potential risks. You can read about a terrible violation of this ethical rule. Science and Everyday Ethical Decisions Sometimes, science can help people make ethical decisions in their own lives. For example, scientific evidence shows that certain human actions—such as driving cars that burn gasoline—are contributing to changes in Earth’s climate. This, in turn, is causing more severe weather and the extinction of many species. A number of ethical decisions might be influenced by this scientific knowledge. Ethical Dilemma Over in the history of scientific adaptation, humans created medicine and vaccine to combat harmful diseases. They expirement this vaccine to animals since its un-ethical to do it in a human body. Specifically, the monkeys whose according to science the closest human relative is Used as a subject to test the vaccine invented by humans before letting the masses have full access to it. Moral Status: Many philosophers consider this question by Using one tool called "moral status" Moral Status is the degree to which an organism deserves ethical consideration, often placed on a hierarchy. Full moral status (FMS) is viewed in a variety of ways,
Impartiality is often associated with fairness, unbiased, just, and equal treatment. Becoming impartial means that one should detach from one's own biases and prejudices to be able to see things holistically without any form of restrictions. Furthermore, impartiality is the principle of justice that requires decisions to be based on an objective criterion that does not discriminate nor benefit one type of person over another. It is related to the idea that moral judgement must be backed by good reasons. Each individual’s interests are equally important, and no one should get special treatment. It rules out any scheme that treats the members of particular groups as somehow morally inferior. Together, reason and impartiality form the basis for ethical decision-making. They help us create rules and guidelines that are fair and just, ensuring that our actions are morally sound and that we treat everyone with respect and fairness. Emotion That is to say feelings and intuitions - play a major role in most of the ethical decisions people make. Most people do not realize how much their emotions direct their moral choices. However, experts think it is impossible to make any important moral Characteristics of Emotion The core of an emotion is feeling Emotional experiences are associated with some instincts or biological drives. Emotions are the products of perception. Every emotional experience involves several physical and physiological changes in the organism. The basic ways of expressing emotions are inborn and it develops through maturation. Emotions rise abruptly and die slowly. The same emotion can be aroused by several different stimuli. Emotions have the quality of displacement. Feeling vs. Emotion Feeling are mental associations and reactions to emotion Cause by emotions Mental association reaction can be hidden Emotion That are physical states that arise as a response to external stimuli aroused before feelings Physical states Can be observed through physical reaction MODULE 6 MORAL REASONING AND THEORIES WHAT IS MORAL REASONING? -Moral reasoning is the process by which individuals make decisions about what is right and wrong, good or bad, based on ethical principles, values, or social norms. 7 STEPS IN MORAL REASONING
1. GATHERING THE FACTS -Moral dilemmas can be resolved just by clarifying facts of the case in question. You need to know what’s really right or wrong. If you don’t have all the facts, you might base your decision on incomplete or incorrect information. This can lead to poor or unfair choices. 2. DETERMINING ETHICAL ISSUES -Understanding the ethical issue at hand is the foundation for any moral decision- making process. By identifying what is at stake, we recognize the moral conflict or dilemma that needs to be resolved. This ensures we are addressing the right problem. 3. IDENTIFYING THE PRINCIPLES THAT HAVE BEARING ON THE CASE -Ethical princples (such as honesty, fairness, justice, or respect for others) serve as guides or benchmarks in determining the right course of action. These principles provide a moral framework and ensure that decisions align with fundamental moral values. 4. LISTING THE OPTIONS
-Exploring various options prevents tunnel vision and allows for creativity in finding ethical solutions. Listing alternatives helps you avoid making hasty decisions or assuming there’s only one way to handle dilemma.
5. COMPARING THE OPTIONS WITH THE PRINCIPLES -Once alternatives are identified, comparing them to relevant ethical principles ensures that each option is consistent with moral standards. This step allows for the evaluation of whether certain actions align with or violate core values. 6. WEIGHING THE CONSEQUENCES -Understanding the potential outcomes of each alternative is critical for determining which option will lead to the most ethically desirable result. This step helps assess how different actions will impact various stakeholders, ensuring that moral reasoning accounts for the consequences.
- Both positive and negative consequences are to be considered. 7. MAKING A DECISION -Deliberation should not last forever, and decisions must be made. All of the prior steps- gathering information, analyzing principles, considering alternatives, and weighing consequences-are preparatory. The process of moral reasoning is incomplete without a final decision. This step involves committing to a course of action based on your ethical analysis and reasoning. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REASON AND WILL WHAT IS REASON? -The use of rationality, rather than emotion, tradition, or authority, to justify and evaluate moral judgements. Assumptions and premises both factual and inferred used to make judgements should be accurate, relevant and complete. WHAT IS REASONING? Reasoning is associated with thingking, cognition and intellect. The philosophical field of logic studies ways in which humans reason formally through argument. Reasoning may be subdivided into forms of logical reasoning (forms associated with the strict sense): Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning Abductive Reasoning DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- Is a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions. It’s often contrasted with inductive reasoning, where you start with specific observations and form general conclusions.
- Deductive reasoning is also called deductive logic or top-down reasoning. Example 1 If there’s a rainbow, flights get canceled. There is a rainbow now. Therefore flights are canceled. Example 2 All chili peppers are spicy. Tomatoes are a chili pepper. Therefore, tomatoes are spicy. INDUCTIVE REASONING Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which you draw general conclusions based on specific observations or evidence. Inductive reasoning starts with specific examples and moves toward broader generalizations. Example Observation 1: The sun has risen in the east every morning so far. Observation 2: Today, the sun rose in the east. Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will likely rise in the east tomorrow. ABDUCTIVE REASONING Is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or sets of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation for the observations. Example 1:
Act utilitarianism is mainly based on “the end justifies the means.” B. RULE UTILITARIANISM a person will consider the law and fairness before an action is taken. S/he will want to achieve maximum good through the most just means. In terms of making laws, rule utilitarianism says that the right law is the one that produces the best results.
2. Deontology: a duty-based moral philosophy place special emphasis on the relationship between duty and the morality of human actions. The term deontology is derived from the Greek deon, “duty,” and logos, “science.” a duty-based moral theory. Deontologists state that society needs rules in order to function and a person can only be called moral to the extent that he abides by those rules. In other words, people should only do things that they would be happy to see everyone do. 3. Relativism : a theory based on experience Moral relativism is the idea that all societies should accept each other’s differing moral values, given that there are no universal moral principles. Moral relativism can be understood in several ways: o Descriptive moral relativism o Meta-ethical moral relativism o Normative moral relativism Descriptive moral relativism also known as cultural relativism, says that moral standards are culturally defined, which is generally true. Indeed, there may be a few values that seem nearly universal, such as honesty and respect, but many differences appear across cultures when people evaluate moral standards around the world. Different cultures around the world have different eating habits. For cultural relativists, no one habit is better or no diet is more delicious than any others. Normative Moral Relativism the idea that all societies should accept each other’s differing moral values, given that there are no universal moral principles. Most philosophers disagree however. For example, just because bribery is okay in some cultures doesn’t mean that other cultures cannot rightfully condemn it. 4. Divine command theory: a higher power This theory asserts that what is good or bad, right or wrong, is determined by divine authority rather than any intrinsic properties of the actions themselves. Therefore, whatever God commands is good, while anything he forbids is bad. As mentioned by Weilenberg (2020) “an act is morally obligatory just in case God commands it, morally wrong just in case God forbids it, and (merely) morally permissible just in case God neither commands nor forbids it – and it is God’s commanding, forbidding, or doing neither that in some sense grounds the moral statuses of actions” In its most basic form, divine command theory presents ethics as being wholly dependent on God’s will. If one adheres to this idea, God serves as the foundation for morality, where His moral law sets the standard for right and wrong (Carson, 2012). According to this view, ethics are objective in nature because they exist independent of human opinion. 5. Virtue Ethics: Always Improve Yourself Only good people can make good moral decisions. Therefore, the best way to be moral is to constantly seek to improve oneself. Virtue ethics emphasizes the importance of cultivating moral character, rather than following rules or laws. Virtue ethicists argue that if a person tries his best to embody these traits, then by definition he will always be in a good position to make moral judgments. Virtue Ethics is one of the major ethical theories and has been studied for centuries by great thinkers like Aristotle and Plato. They believed that cultivating good character traits was the key to living a moral life.
Plato believed that developing good character traits was essential to living an ethical life. He argued that an individual’s character should be cultivated through education and self-control. Aristotle took this idea even further and argued that an individual’s character is formed through habituation. He believed that a person should cultivate good habits in order to live a virtuous life. Both Plato and Aristotle believed that cultivating good character traits was essential for living a moral life. The principles of virtue ethics are based on the cultivation of good character traits or virtues.
6. Egoism: A theory based on self-interest A moral philosophy that holds that the best way for one to be morally good is to act in accordance with one's self-interest. Egoists hold that we are only really qualified to consider our own well-being, and that attempts to "Be one's brother's keeper" are doomed to fail because we can never really know what our peers actually want. Egoists also believe that if everyone acts in their own self-interest, then society is more likely to solve moral dilemmas to the satisfaction of all parties, thereby maximizing overall happiness. **2 forms of ethical Egoism :
- Individual Ethical Egoism** All people should do what is in my interest. This is indeed ethical egoism, but it is incapable of being universalized (because it makes essential reference to a particular individual). Thus, it is arguably not an ethical principle at all. Nor, from a practical perspective, is the individual ethical egoist likely to be able to persuade others to follow a course of action that is so obviously designed to benefit only the person who is advocating it. 2. Universal Ethical Egoism All people should do what is in their own interests.” Unlike the individual principle, this principle is universalizable. Moreover, many self- interested people may be disposed to accept it, because it appears to justify acting on desires that conventional morality might prevent one from satisfying. 7. Natural Rights Theory : Human Rights Believe that every person is endowed with certain inalienable rights, such as the right to life, the right to own property, and the right to liberty. Natural rights theorists argue that these rights are self-evident, and would exist even if nobody believed in them. The reason that natural rights theorists hold these rights as self-evident is that they are essential to the flourishing of human happiness and the foundation of civil society. MENTAL FRAME A frame of reference, or point of view, refers to the way we look at a given situation. How a person views that situation can affect her understanding of the facts and influence how she determines right from wrong. Framing is a feature of our brain's architecture. Our minds react to the context in which something is embedded, not just to the thing itself. It is one way the brain finds patterns in chaos and creates meaning out of meaninglessness. MODULE 7 VIRTUE ETHICS A right act is the action a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances. Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or moral character of the person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of particular actions. Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or wrongness of individual actions, it provides guidance as to the sort of characteristics and behaviors a good person will seek to achieve. Virtue ethics certainly didn’t die away after Aristotle. Roman Stoics like Seneca and Marcus Aurelius also focused on character rather than
laws, vices and virtues, and the religious versus the secular life. Part 3 deals with Jesus Christ who serves as mediator between God and the man in Christian thought, Jesus as human's savior, the Sacraments, and the Resurrection. NATURAL LAW - We are used to hearing people justify doing something by making the appeal that what they maintain is what is "natural" and therefore acceptable. Likewise, people would judge something as unacceptable on the basis that is supposedly "unnatural" In order to proceed, it is therefore necessary to ask "What do the words natural and unnatural mean? Sometimes the word "natural" seems to be used to refer to some kind of intuition that a person has, one which is so apparently true to him that is unquestioned. The word "natural" is used as an appeal to something instinctual without it being directed by reason. For example, a man may deem it all right if he were to urinate just anywhere because after all he sees it as a "natural" function of humans. We also easily find people using the word "natural" to refer to what seems common to them given their particular environment. For instance, Filipinos may suppose that eating three full meals of rice and dishes everyday is "natural" because everyone we know behaves that way The Natural Law Theory is a theory which will provide us a unique way of determining the moral status of our actions. THE CONTEXT OF AQUINAS" ETHICS The Christian life, therefore, is about developing the capacities given to us by God into a disposition of virtue inclined toward the good. Aquinas also puts forward that there is within us a conscience that directs our moral thinking.For Aquinas, there is a sense of right and wrong in us that we are obliged to obey.However, he also adds that this sense of right and wrong must be informed, guided, and ultimately grounded in an objective basis for morality. So we are called to heed the voice of conscience and enjoy to develop and maintain a life of virtue. We need a basis for our conscience to be properly informed, and we need a cleared guidepost on whether certain decisions we make lead us toward virtue or vice. Natural law is a theory asserting that humans are born with intrinsic values like morality and the ability to be rational in decision- making. Morally motivated individuals can distinguish between right and wrong and good and evil. It is a consistent universal law based on human nature that remains untouched by culture,custom, or society. However, it evolves based on its intended use, function, and conditions. SAM HARRIS Sam Harris is a well-known philosopher and neuroscientist who has written extensively on ethics. One of his most influential works is “The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values”. In this book, Harris argues that science can and should be used to determine moral values, challenging the traditional view that science and morality are separate domains. Harris’s central thesis is that moral questions have objectively right and wrong answers based on the well-being of conscious creatures. He believes that actions can be evaluated by their impact on the well-being of individuals and societies, and that science can help us understand these impacts. Harris also critiques moral relativism, the idea that morality is subjective and varies between cultures. He argues that some moral systems are objectively better than others because they promote greater well- being. “The Moral Landscape”, Sam Harris argues that science can determine human values and moral truths. Objective Morality: Harris posits that moral questions have objectively right and wrong answers based on the well-being of conscious creatures. He believes that actions can be judged by their impact on well-being. Science and Morality: He argues that science can help us understand what actions and policies will maximize well- being. By studying the brain and human
behavior, we can identify what contributes to or detracts from human flourishing. Critique of Moral Relativism: Harris challenges the idea that morality is subjective and varies between cultures. He asserts that some moral systems are objectively better because they promote greater well-being. Moral Landscape Metaphor: He uses the metaphor of a “moral landscape” with peaks and valleys representing different states of well-being. The goal is to navigate towards the peaks, where well-being is maximized. Practical Implications: Harris discusses how this framework can be applied to real-world issues, such as human rights, justice, and public policy, advocating for evidence-based approaches to moral decision-making. FALLACY Fallacies in moral reasoning are errors in logic that can undermine arguments about ethics and morality. A moralistic fallacy could be any belief or argument that the world is as you think it should be, morally. An example of a moralistically fallacious belief is that because war is morally wrong, humans do not have any predispositions toward engaging in war. Looking to history for guidance, it can be seen that this is not true. Humans have been fighting for hundreds of years. Just because violence is seen as wrong, does not mean humans don’t have tendencies toward it. A naturalistic fallacy is a belief or argument that what is natural is morally right. An example would be that because animals engage in fighting in the wild, it is morally acceptable for humans do to the same. However, violence is generally seen as wrong, even though it can be observed in the animal kingdom. AD HOMINEM Ad hominem (is Latin for "to the man"): This attacks the person instead of the person's argument. E.g.: In response to somebody saying they didn't feel right about participating in a demonstration against discrimination, some one responded, "You're a fascist without any moral sense, you just want to perpetuate racism." Or if an energy consultant accused opponents of a nuclear power plant of being "wild-eyed fanatics." Or is it is said that anyone who opposes administration policy is a "communist dupe." Attacking the person: This fallacy occurs when, instead of addressing someone's argument or position, you irrelevantly attack the person or some aspect of the person who is making the argument. The fallacious attack can also be direct to membership in a group or institution. AD VERICUNDIAM The ad verecundiam fallacy, also known as the appeal to authority, occurs when someone argues that a claim is true simply because an authority figure or expert believes it to be true12. This fallacy can be problematic because even experts can be wrong, and their authority alone does not guarantee the truth of a claim. For example, if someone argues that a particular medical treatment is effective solely because a famous actor endorses it, they are committing the ad verecundiam fallacy. The actor’s expertise in acting does not qualify them to make authoritative statements about medical treatments. CATEGORIAL IMPERATIVE The Categorical Imperative is a concept in ethics introduced by the philosopher Immanuel Kant. It’s a way to determine if an action is morally right by asking if it could be applied universally. What is the Categorical Imperative? Universal Law: Act only according to rules that you would want everyone to follow. If you think an action is right, imagine if everyone did it. If the world would be okay with everyone doing it, then it’s a good action. Respect for People: Treat others as valuable in themselves, not just as tools to achieve your own goals. This means respecting others’ rights and dignity. LEGAL PRINCIPLES
