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ED 228 983 IR^010
AUTHOR TITLE Anderson,Computer Literacy:Cheryl^ A. Rationale, Definition and
Practices.
PUB NOTE DATE Oct24p.;^82 Paper presented at,a Satellite Teleconference
on 28-29, Microcomputeri 1982). in Education (Austin,^ TX,^ October
PUB TYPE. Speeches/ConferenceInformition^ Analyses Papers-(150)^ (070)^ --^ Viewpoints^ (120)
EDRS DESCRIPTORS PRICE MF01/PC01Access to^ PlusEducation;^ Posta§e. *Computer Literaty; *Course
Content;Problems; *Curriculum *Definitions; Development; Educational Curriculum Facilities
Design;Teacher *Microcomputers;Education; Teaching Program Methods Descriptions;
IDENTIFIERS Computer^ Uses^ in^ Education r
ABSTRACT Focusing on use of the computer as an object of
literacyinstruction, and exploresthis^ paper a varietyprovides of^ a definitionsrationale^ for for^ teaching the term.^ computer Also
distnssed are various curriculum approaches that are being developed
to content teach incomputer a separate literacy course content, and the which infusion include of computerteaching^ literacythe
curriculaskills^ within are^ anprovided^ existing for^ curriculum. the elementary,^ Extpiples secondary,^ of^ computer and collegeliteracy
levels. from this Finally,..the new curriculum paper development, addresses thespecifically, problems that teacher are resultlingtraining
and equility of access to computer skills. Nineteen references are
listed. (Author/LMM)
* Reproductions^ supplied^ by^ EDRS^ are^ the^ best^ that^ can^ be^ made^ *
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'Computer. (^) Definition Literacy: and practice-s (^) Rationale,
Dr. Cheryl byA. Anderson University of Texas at Austin
Presented on Microcomputers at a Satellite in EducationTeleconference University^ October of^28 Texas&^ 29, at^1982 Austin
"PERMISSIONTOREPRODUCETHIS MATERIALHASBEENGRANTEDBY Cheryl A. Anderson
TOTHEEDUCATIONALRESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER(ERIC)."
Computer Literacy: Rationale,^ Definition^ and^ Practices'
In a recent Fast Response Survey (1982) conducteddfor the U.S. Department of Education it was determined that American students have access to 96,000 microcomputers and 24,000 computer terminals. This figure is up from a 1980 survey which found there were 31,000 microcom- puters and 22,000 computer terminals in public schools a,cross the nation. The^ 1981-82^ study^ found^ that^ 29,000^ public^ schools^ in this nation have at least one computer for ihstructional use. The^ Department of Education indicates that the computers are being used by 4,7^ million students for an average of 9 hOurs ;^ per^ year:,^ Not^ suprisingly^ they^ also found that the availability of computers varied according to grade level with the heaviest concentration of computers at the secondary level. The major educational application, however, was the same at both the elementary and secondary level - that application was computer science or computer literacy training, No one can deny that th/ computer, specifically the microcomputer, is having a tremendous impadt on the school of today. It^ is^ well accepted that the microchirechnology which gave us small^ inexpensive computers is one of the rOons^ for^ this^ increased^ interest.^ But^ what is meant by this term comquter literacy and why should we aseducators te concerned about the implementation o a computer literacy^ curriculum at the elementary, secondary, and higher education level?^ What^ problems are being raised by this curriculum development^ effort?^ This^ presenta- tion will attempt totfiswer 1 these^ questions.^ My^ intention^ is^ to^ provide 1
you with a rationalefor^ teaching^ computer^ skills;^ to provide^ some common definitions of computer literacy;^ to^ give^ you^ some:feeling^ for what is currently being done,with computer literacy^ curriculum^ across all levels; and to help you focus on problems^ that^ are^ likely^ to^ occur because of this new curriculum developmept.,
A Rationale forTeaching^ About^ and^ With^ Computers At present our society is at a stage in between^ the^ industrial revolution which relied on the operationof^ machinery^ and^ a^ new^ revolu- tion which will rely heavily on computersand^ other^ communications technology to distribute and move information (Culbertson,^ 1981).^ This new revolution--theinformation^ high^ technology^ revolution^ is developing at a rate at least three times asfast^ as^ the^ industrial^ revolution (Culbertson, 1981). Our^ ability^ to^ thrive^ economically^ as^ a nation^ will depend upon how well we,train our population^ in^ the^ skills^ required^ to work in new brain intensive industries (Forbes^ &^ Gisi,^ 1982;^ Deringer, 1982). We^ must^ train^ our^ young^ and retain^ our^ old.^ For^ according^ to Department of Labor statistics, currently onehalf^ the^ work^ force and one half tCf the gross national^ product^ is^ involved^ in^ information industries. From^ all^ indications^ these^ trends will^ continue^ to^ in- crease. The basic skills required by a worker^ of^ tomorrow^ are^ slightly different than the ones we stress today. The^ information^ skills^ needed for the future include: evaluation^ and^ analysis,^ critical thinking, problem solving, organizational and reference^ skills.^ The^ ability^ to synthesize and apply information, theability^ to^ make^ decisions^ and communicate information will be importantskills^ as^ well^ (Forbes^ &^ Gisi,
How is the United States doing inIts^ computer^ training^ efforts? At the present time there is nonational^ policy^ toward-technological training in public schools. In^ a^ recent^ NSF^ report^ on^ Science and Engineering for the 1980s - it was stated that^ the^ current^ population^ is fast becoming technologically illiteTate with^ only^ a^ minimal^ knowledge of science and mathematics (Molnar,^ 1980).^ The^ emphAsis^ that^ is^ placed on these subjects by American^ schools^ is^ very^ limited.^ For^ example,^ in
a 25 hour week the averageelementary I-^ school^ student^ receives only^ one
hour of science and less than four hours^ of^ math^ (Paul^ Hurd^ cited 41110 in Deringer, 1982)., In^ high^ school^ only^ 9.1%^ of^ studentstake^ one^ year^ of physics, 16% take a year of chemistry, 45%^ take^ one^ year^ of^ biology^ and 17% take one year of general science (Molnar,^ 1980).^ It^ is^ no^ wonder that the country is suffering from ashortage^ of^ engineers^ and^ cien- tists (Molnar, 1982). There^ has^ been^ a^ steady^ decline^ in science^ and 'mathematics achievement scores among students^ for^ the^ Past^15 years. This is due in part to a decrease in^ the^ number^ of^ qualified^ math and^. science teachers. Since^ the^ 1970s^1 there^ has^ been^ a^ 77%^ decline^ in^ the number of math teachers and a 65% decline^ for^ those^ in^ science (Hurd cited.in'Deringer, 1982). Other^ countries^ are^ makingnational^ efforts to stress training in science,mathematics^ and^ technology.^ We^ cannot afford to ignore this type of training among our own^ population, partic- ularly.if we are to mairltain our present^ lead,in^ the^ high^ technology^ and , information_^ industries.^ Therefore,^ a^ commitment^ must^ be^ made^ on the local, state and national level to seethat^ our^ young^ and^ old^ citizens 'have the skills necessary to workand^ live^ in^ an^ information^ society. Computer literacy training is one such skill.
tie.
Computer Literacy Defined What is cdmputer literacy? At^ present^ the^ only^ thing^ agreed^ upon by advocates of computer literacy is that there is no agreed upon meaning for the term. I^ will^ give^ you^ several^ definitions,^ you^ can choose the one that suits your particular curriculum taste. Once I heard Arthur Luerhmann, former director of the Lawrente Hall of Science computer science program, define computer literacy as a small consulting company i9 California of which he is a member. However, Luerhmann does have definite opinions about the matter. HP^ states^ that "The goal-of defining computer literacy is of great importance. Much hangs on it. If^ the^ public^ decides^ the^ subject^ is^ worth^ teaching^ in^ its schools, then if faces an equipment bill of about one billion dollars^ in the U.S. alone. It^ faces^ additional^ costs^ of-curriculum^ development,^ of teacher training, and the assessment of student achievement" (Luehrmann, 1981, p. 682). Luehrmann^ defines^ computer^ literacy^ as^ the^ ability^ to^ do computing. This^ translates^ into^ hands7on^ experience^ with^ the^ computer by learning to control and program it using a computer language. Luehrmann is slightly disdainful of those who try to say that computer literacy involves learning activities that can be done without the computer. Luehrmann^ states^ that^ the^ "...doers^ of^ computing^ have^ a knowledge qualitatively superior to that of the hearers about computing" (Luehrmann, 1981, p. 684). Minnesota is one of the few states that has established a state consortium effort ,to --define and develop a computer literacy curriculum. Contrary to Luehrmann's definition, the representatives of the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium (MECC) define computer literacy as"the knowledge and skills the average citizen needs to know (or^ do)^ about
- The^ ability^ to^ make^ use^ of^ ideas^ from^ the^ world^ of^ computer programming and computer applications as part of an indiyidual's strategy for retrieving information, communicating and problem solving. Beverly Hunter of the Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO) defines computer literacy as..the skills "...a person needs to know and do with computers in order to function in our information basecr- societrt-(Hunter, 1981, p. 1). Hunter^ thinks^ that^ the^ specific^ skills that a person will need will depend upon the individual and the tyi5e of job and the time period. For^ example,^ the^ knowledge^ and^ skills^ required by a computer programmer would be different than the kinds of knowledge .and skills required by a teacher. The^ content,areas^ which^ Hunter includes in the development of computer literacy are as follows:
- Impact of computing on society, my work, my institution
- Applications^ in^ various^ fields
- Programming^ and^ problem^ solving
- Hardware/software systems
- Awareness^ of^ careers
- Personal^ tool^ for^ learning^ and^ working
- Control of machines, systems
- Ethical^ and^ responsible^ behavior^ with^ information^ systems As you can see there are some commonalities within these defini- tions. Hands=on^ experience^ with^ the^ computer^ is^ definitely^ emphanzed as is the development of programming skills. A^ knowledge^ of^ hardware systems and the ability to use software packages are also a part of computer literacy training. In addition, computer literacy involves the
ability to use the computer to solve numerical, logical, and^ informa- tional problems. Another^ important^ thread^ that^ runs^ through^ most^ of these definitions is the effort to discuss the social^ and^ psychological impact of computer use. Now^ that^ you^ roughly^ know^ what^ the^ term^ comput;- er literacy means, let me provide youwith^ some^ examples^ of^ different approaches to computer literacy which are being adopted by schools^ and universities across the country.
Approaches to COmputer Literacy Curric'iAlums As part of a two year computer literacy project MECC surveyed^ the country to find out what was being taught in public schdols^ with^ regard to computer skills (Hansen, Klassen, Anderson & Johnson,^ 1979). From their survey several patterns emerged. The^ courses^ were^ on^ eitherthe junior high or secondary level. At^ the^ junior^ high^ level^ the^ courses were 2-4 weeks long and either focused^ on^ computer^ awareness^ (dealing with the impact, careers, and applications) or they combined^ computer awareness with hands-on programming. At^ the^ senior^ high^ level^ the courses ranged from 9-18 weeks in length and either^ focused^ on^ computer in mathematics where programming is taught as a.mkthematical problem solving tool or on BASIC language programming. One such course is currently being taught at the T. J. Rusk Middle Schdol'in Nagodoches, Texas. The^ creator^ of^ the^ course,^ Bill^ Welch, wanted to provide an option to eighth grade students who have^ no^ need^ to review their basic math skills andwha have no desire,to take algebra^ at this time. With^ support^ from^ the Tiexas^ Education^ Agency^ in^ the^ form^ of Title IV, Part C funds, the school tias able to purchase 20 microcomput- ers for a computer laboratory. The.course^ covers^ the^ following^ units:
Another^. approach is to infuse computer liter;acy skillsthroughout the curriculum. This^ type^ Of,approach^ is^ being^ developed^ by^ the^ Human Resources,Research Organization (HumRRO) and the Montgomery County. Public Schools (Hunter, 1980). The^ philosophy^ behind^ the-infusion approach is that 1 once specific computer literacy goals have been de- termined, theylcan be integrated into the existing math, social studies and science cUrriculum in^ grades^ K-8.^ The^ Computer-Lit^ project,as^ it^ is
. known, is being supported with NSF funds. The^ project^ plans^ to^ develop a cuericulum gtlide ' that will include^ topics^ with^ instrUctional^ objec- tives targetedlto _ the appeopriate grade^ level^ and^ subject^ area.^ Sug- gested classroom activities and learning resources to.support such activities will also be a part of the guide. The^ guides^ will^ have^ been' developed with input from a nafional panel of experts, publishers, .vendors, education specialists, and computer-experienced classroom teachers; The^ plan^ is^ to^ field^ test.the^ curriculum^ in^ the^ Montgomery County Public Schools and then publish the field.tested curriculum. The completion date for the project is September, 1983. The advantage to using this infusion technique, as^ Hunter^ points out, is that it is developmentally sequenced and.therefore, provides^ the students and teachers with some continuity. The^ sequence^ assures^ that all students receive training in computer literacy. It^ also^ means^ ihat students do not have to give something up in their studies to learn about coMPuters. By^ providing^ an^ extensive^ cureiculum^ guide,^ the project will have lessened the 'teacher's burden because the teacher^ will be able to find the kinds of information that will help themin^ building a lesson. The^ infusion^ approach,^ states^ Hunter.^ (1980),,is^ better than the separate computer literacy course approach because by infusing
Computer 11 Literacy.
'computers throug out the curriculum one is providing students with a tool that can he p them solve problems in math, science and social studies. "The^ whole^ point^ of^ computers^ in^ our^ information-based^ soci- ety", she says, "is to provide us with the tools we need to solve problems, to augment our intellects, and to give us releVant information when we rieed it" (Hunter, ,2980, p. 7). The Cupertino Union School District in California has also'devel- oped a K-8 computer literacy curriculum which was recently published in The Computing Teacher (Krause, 1981). This^ di'strict^ has^ worked^ in" stages over a period of three years to train teachers to the point^ where 'an extensive curriculum seemed feasible. Financial^ suppor was^ drawn from a variety of sources: title^ monies^ for^ the^ gifted^ and^ handi- capped, donations, existing school accounts and'for the 1981-82^ school year^ A the board allocated capital expenditure funds.^ Each^ junior^ igh wilt have 12 microcomputer& with two disk drives and a printer. Eac elementary school that agrees to participate will receive fivemicrocom-
puters. The^ computers^ will^ be^ placed^ in^ the^ media^ center,^ but^ some 4 will
be on carts to be circulated to the classroom. In^ grades^ 3-6^ the^ use^ of the toMputer wili be a part of the regular classroom routine. In^ grades 7-8 a cottr&e in computer awareness and introductory programming will^ be offered. The^ district^ has^ designed^ their^ course^ objectives^ so^ that they can be met through a single course or infused into^ the^ existing^ social studies, language arts, science and math curriculum. Here^ are^ the^ major goals and Objectives of the course as they relate to the content areas across levels.
set
to Dr. Richard Horn, the provost and senior vice president of CMU,^ there were four possible approaches that the university could have taken^ to encourage computer literacy.competencies among students: Electives: where^ students^ take^ computing'on^ an^ optional^ basis. Literacy: where computing is seen as a basic area of knowledge and skill that students should have;
Skill: where^ computing'^ is^ viewed^ as^ a^ required^ basic^ skill^ like mathematics and language arts; ,Foundation: where^ computing^ is^ seen^ as^ a^ key^ to^ information processing which is in turn seen as fundamental to the process of learning (cited in McCredie, 1981). Another phenomenon that is occurring in teacher training insti- tutions is the development of programs of study in educational computing on the graduate and undeca4uate level. A^ few^ of^ these^ include^ Arizona State University, \Columbia University Teacher's College, Stanford Vn7versity and North Texas State. Lesley^ College^ has^ an^ undergraduate program which requires each education student to take an introductory course in computers and providei the option of having a teaching^ minor in computer science. The^ minor^ emphasises^ an^ understanding^ of^ computers and an)pportunity^ to^ have^ laboratory^ experience^ with^ computers. Undergraduate students must take a total of 14 hours from the following
. course selection: 1. Programming in BASIC 2. Programming in LOGO 3.' Computer Structure: Fundamentals.of^ Organization^ and^ Operation 4. Information^ Systems^ for^ Computers 5. Programming in PASCAL
The graduate program is composed of nine different cOmputer courses. These include:
- Computer^ Literacy/Introduction^ to^ BASIC,^ PILOT,^ DYNAMO,^ and LOGO
- Computers^ in^ the^ Schools:^ Applied^ uses^ for^ Teachers,^ Adminis trators and Specialists ? 3. Programming^ in^ BASIC:^ 4.^ Structured^ Approach
- Programming^ in^ LOGO
- Computers^ and^ the^ Special^ Needs^ Child 6: Introduction^ to^ Computer^ Simulation
- Programming^ in^ PASCAL:^ Intermediate^ Programming^ Techniques
- Fundamentals^ of^ Computer^ Structure
- Evaluation^ and^ Development^ of^ Educational^ Sof^ Ware
- _Field Placement These programs have only just begun. Lesley Colleglitsfinding that buildings4he programs requires the hiring of new faculty plus retraining . of old faculty, but they are also finding the whole process to be very ',challenging. In^ the^ future^ most^ teacher traininrtdk^ - nstitutions^ will^ have to include computer literacy trai(ning for both inservice and^ preservice teachers. Particularly^ if^ the^ state^ teacher^ certification^ requirements change to make computer skills a teaching competency.
Problems with Computer Literacy I have already discussed one of the problems relating to computer literacy, that is a need for a national coMmitment to developingComput er skills. However,^ two^ other^ major^ issues^ emerge^ with^ computer
support staff and on(plew^ faculty.^ This^ also^ means^ that^ a^ staff^ develop- ment effort must be made in terms of training,existing faculty^ in computer literacy skills. This^ retraining^ effort^ will^ ,not^ be^ easy because college faculty have a natural aversion to technology (Meirhenry, 1977). Indeed,^ a^ faculty^ member's^ use^ of^ technology^ does not often receive support from the college system. Hunter^ (1981)^ points out fhat until faculty receive some reward for usingtechnology,^ such^ as publishing credit for development computer assisted instruction,in deciding tenure, faculty members will not voluntarily devote time to the .tak of learning to use technology. Retraining of college of education faculty becomes mandatorywhen they are expected to certify both preservice and inservice teachers^ in relation to computer literacy skills. Currently,^ those^ in^ teacher education are not computer literate themselves. AnOther^ concern^ is^ that most teather education programs still have a very traditional^ focus. Few teaching methods courses reflect work.witt compu ers,computer assisted instruction much Less other technolow. Ar hur Luehrmann^ (1982) suggests^ A that colleges of education should welcome he^ opportunity^ to teach the 5 000 to^ 100,000^ teachers^ ,^ that^ will reqfzire computer^ litecacy training ove the^ neict^ decade.^ He^ states^ "What^ b^ tter^ source,^ of
rejuvenation is there,fol colleges of education E4rrently feeling
demoralized by a drop in demand forteachers caUsed by a shrinklng school age population...? (Luerhmann, 1982, p. IM). Equity is the other, major issue. What^ I^ 4an^ by^ this^ is^ that^ all students should^ ,. have eqUal access to computers )so that^ each^ one^ h9^ the opportunity to develop the skills they will- need in the future. Most' affluent schools (^) _are finding wayst6:purchase^ computers,^ but^ with
federal funds drying up the poorer school districts will not,have the
money to buy computers. And when poorer distActs^ do manage^ to^ purchase
computers, usually the students use them only for remedial drill^ and practice work. These^ students^ are^ not^ learning^ tocOntrol^ the^ computer like their affluent counterparts. As^ previously^ mentioned,^ computer literacy courses often have prerequisite math requirements, leaving the computer available to an elite few. And^ when^ the^ coursg^ is^ available^ on an elective basis, it must compete with others. Ii addition,^ a^ special^ effort^ must^ be^ made^ to^ encourage^ females^ to participate eqUally.in developing computer skills. Winkle^ and^ Mathews (1982) state that not onlyido ' girls have a culturally derived fear of technology, they also'su4er^ from^ math^ anxiety^ (although^ they^ excel^ in meth and science in elementary school). "The^ idea^ that^ computers^ are 'too cOmplex' to be understood by the average woman," Winkle and^ Mathews .iStatg, "...not only keep women out of computer and information science fields but also discourages them from taking advantage of opportunities for 'learning about computers.",(Winkle & Mathews, p. 315).^ Thus,^ we^ must ensure that afl children regardless of given intelligence,^ sex, socio-economic status and ethnic origiii receive equal consideration in 'terms.of learning to control the computer. For^ unless^ we^ do,^ those^ who -work with their brains will become even more advantaged than those who must work with their muscle. And^ the^ gap^ between^ the^ haves^ and^ have nots will increase.
Conclusion In conclusion, it seems to me that several things need tohappen.to make'comOuter literacy a reality. First, ther needs^ to^ be^ a^ commitment
