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Chapter 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE ● based on the oldest age documented is 122 years ● what has changed is life expectancy-the average number of years that a person born in a particular year can expect to live. In the twentieth century alone, life expectancy in the United States increased by 32 years, thanks to improvements in sanitation, nutrition, and medicine. ● Laura Carstensen (2015, 2016) recently described the challenges and opportunities presented by this dramatic increase in life expectancy. In her view, the remarkable increase in the number of people living to an old age has happened so quickly that science, technology, and social expectations have not kept pace. THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE ● The belief that development occurs throughout life is central to the life-span perspective on human development, but this perspective has other characteristics as well. ● Iife-span perspective views development as lifelong , multidimensional , multidirectional , plastic , multidisciplinary , and contextual , and as a process that involves growth , maintenance , and regulation of loss COMPONENTS OF THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE ● DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG - no age period dominates development ● DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL - no matter what your age might be, your body mind, emotions, and relationships are changing and affecting each other.
- developmental has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions. exp: attention, memory, abstract thinking, speed of processing information, and social intelligence are just a few of the components of the cognitive dimension. ● DEVELOPMENTAL IS MULTIDIRECTIONAL - throughout life, some dimensions or components of a
dimension expand and others shrink.
exp: during adolescence, as individuals establish romantic relationships, their time spent with friends may decrease [ relationship (more time for romantic relationship less time for friends ]
● DEVELOPMENTAL IS PLASTIC - plasticity means
the capacity for age.
exp: can you still improve your intellectual skills when you are in your seventies or eighties? Or might these intellectual skills be fixed by the time you are in your thirties so that further improvement is impossible? [ cognitive abilities as we grow older can still be developed through training]
● DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE IS
MULTIDISCIPLINARY - Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of development through the lifespan. ● DEVELOPMENT IS CONTEXTUAL - all development occurs within a context, or setting. Context includes families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries, and so on. Each of these settings is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors. ● DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, and REGULATION OF LOSS - the mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition among three goals of human development: growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss. ● DEVELOPMENT IS A CO-CONSTRUCTION OF BIOLOGY, CULTURE, AND THE INDIVIDUAL - factors thats working together exp: the brain shapes culture, but it is also shaped by culture and the experiences that individuals have or pursue, INFLUENCES CAN HAVE A BIOLOGICAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON DEVELOPMENTAL ● NORMATIVE AGE-GRADED INFLUENCES - these influences include biological processes such as puberty and menopause. Also includes sociocultural factors and environmental processes such as beginning formal education (usually at the age of 6 in most cultures) and retiring from the workforce (which takes place during the age of 50s - 60s in most cultures) ● NORMATIVE HISTORY - GRADED INFLUENCES - common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances. ● NONNORMATIVE LIFE EVENTS - are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on their lives. These events do not happen to everyone, and when they do occur they can influence people in different ways. exp: include the death of a parent when a child is young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a fire that destroys a home, winning the lottery, or getting an unexpected career opportunity. SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS ● HEALTH AND WELL-BEING - Health professionals today recognize the powerful influences of lifestyles and psychological states on health and well-being. ● PARENTING AND EDUCATION ● SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXTS AND DIVERSITY - health parenting, and education - Iike development itself- are all shaped by their sociocultural context NAV | 1
Chapter 1 ● CULTURE - the behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation. ● CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES - comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree which development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and the degree to which it is culture-specific. ● SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES) - Refers to the grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics. ● GENDER - the characteristics of people as males or females. ● SOCIAL POLICY - a national government's course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens. NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL ● BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES - produce changes in an individual's physical nature exp: genes inherited from parents, brain development, height and weight gains, changes in motor skills, nutrition, exercise, the hormonal changes of puberty and cardiovascular decline these biological processes affect development. ● COGNITIVE PROCESSES - refer to changes in the individual's thought, intelligence, and language. exp: watching a colorful mobiIe swinging above the crib, putting together a two-word sentence, memorizing a poem, imagining what it would be like to be a movie star, and solving a crossword puzzle all involve cognitive processes. ● SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES - involve changes in the individual's relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. exp: an infant's smile in response to a parent's touch PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT ● DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD - refers to a tỉme frame in a person's life that is characterized by certain features ● PRENATAL PERIOD - the time from conception to birth [ approx. 9-month period ] ● INFANCY - a time of extreme dependence upon adults ; many psychological activities - language) symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination, and social learning. [ developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months ] ● TODDLER - used to describe a child
- toddlers are in a transitional period between infancy [ about 1 ½ to 3 years of age ] ● EARLY CHILDHOOD - sometimes called the “preschool years”
- During this time, young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills. [ 3 through 5 years of age] ● MIDDLE & LATE CHILDHOOD - master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic , and they are formally exposed to the larger world and its culture [ about 6 to 10 or 11 years of age ] ● ADOLESCENCE - begins with rapid physical changes-dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, growth of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. [ developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, entered at approxımately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age. ] ● EMERGING ADULTHOOD - transition from adolescence to adulthood, at this point in their development, many individuals are still exploring which career path they want to follow, what they want their identity to be, and which lifestyle they want to adopt. [approx. 18 to 28 years of age] exp: single, cohabiting, or married ● EARLY ADULTHOOD - time of establishing personal and economic independence, advancing in a career, and for many, selecting a mate, learning to live with that person in an intimate way, starting a family, and rearing children. [ early 20's and Iast through 30's ] ● MIDDLE ADULTHOOD - time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting next generation in becoming competent, mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career. [ approx. 40 - 60 years of age] ● LATE ADULTHOOD - time of life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles and diminishing strength and health. [ approx 60 - 70 and lasts until death]
- Late adulthood has the longest span of any period of development. FOUR AGES First age : Childhood and adolescence Second age : Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59 Third age : Approximately 60 to 79 years of age Fourth age : Approximately 80 years and older
Chapter 1 ERIKSON' S THEORY TRUST vs MISTRUST experienced in the first year of life AUTONOMY vs SHAME AND DOUBT 1 to 3 years occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood autonomy = assent their sense of independence shame and doubt = restrained to much or punish too harshly INITIATIVE vs GUILT during preschool years (3 to 5 years old) initiative = preschool children face new challenges that require active, purposeful, responsible behavior. guilt = feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious. INDUSTRY vs INFERIORITY elementary school days (6 years old to puberty) during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of their efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent. IDENTITY US IDENTITY CONFUSION identity = If adolescence explore holes in healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life identity confusion = if they do not INTIMACY vs ISOLATION early adulthood (20s , 30s) intimacy = It one form health friendships and an intimate relationship with another isolation = if not GENERATIVITY vs STAGNATION middle adulthood (40s , 50s ) generativity = primarily concern for helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful lives stagnation = feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation INTEGRITY vs DESPAIR late adulthood (60s onward ) integrity = if the person's lis review reveals a life well spent despair = if not PIAGET's COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY ( SenPre-opConFor )
- states that children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE birth - 2 years old infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions PREOPERATIONAL STAGE approx. 2 to 7 years old children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical action and represent the world with words, images, and drawings. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE approx. 7 to 11 years of age children can perform operations that involve objects, and they can reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE 11 and 15 and continues through adulthood individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in abstract and more logical terms. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY ● LEV VYGOTSKY(1896-1934)
- argued that children actively construct their knowledge.
- his theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
- he maintained that cognitive development involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies THE INFORMATION - PROCESSING THEORY
- information-processing theory emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.
- does not describe development as stage-like
- individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills ROBERT SIEGLER (2006, 2017)
- a leading expert on children's Information processing, states that thinking is information processing.
Chapter 1
- argues that the best way to understand how children learn is to observe them while they are learning. MICROGENETIC METHOD
- seeks to discover not just what children know but the cognitive processes involved in how they acquired the knowledge. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)
- focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people DEVELOPMENTAL ROBOTICS
- emerging that examines various developmental topics and issues using robots, such as motor development, perceptual development, information processing, and language development. BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING ● Burrhus Frederic [B.F.] Skinner (1904 - 1990)
- through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence. A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur. positive punishment = adding punishment negative punishment = removing things / punishment BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
- holds that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development ● ALBERT BANDURA(1925- )
- american psychologist
- is the leading architect of social cognitive theory.
- Bandura (1986, 2004, 2010a, b, 2012, 2015) emphasizes that cognitive processes have important links with the environment and behavior.
- His early research program focused heavily on observational learning (also called ímitation or modeling ), which is learning that occurs through observing what others do. ETHOLOGICAL THEORY ● ETHOLOGY - stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, characterized by critical or sensitive periods. KONRAD LORENZ (1903 - 1989 )
- studied the behavior of greylag geese ● IMPRINTING - the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the first moving object seen. JOHN BOWLBY ( 1969 , 1989 ) - illustrated an important application of ethological theory to human development. - stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the lifespan ● CRITICAL PERIOD - imprinting needs to take place at a certain, very early time in the life of the animal, or else it will not take place. URIE BRONFENBRENNER ( 1971 - 2005 ) BRONFENBRENNER'S ECOLOGICAL THEORY (Micro Meso Exo Macro Chrono ) - holds that development reflects the influence of several environmental system MICROSYSTEM setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person's family, peers, school, and neighborhood. It is in the microsystem that the most direct interactions with social agents take place-with parents, peers, and teachers MESOSYSTEM involves relations between microsystem or connections between contexts EXOSYSTEM consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context MACROSYSTEM involves the culture in which individuals live CHRONOSYSTEM consists of patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances ● ECLECTIC THEORETICAL ORIENTATION - orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA ● OBSERVATION - Scientific observation requires an important set of skills. - For observations to be effective, they have to be systematic. ● SURVEY AND INTERVIEW - Sometimes the best and quickest way to get information about people is to ask them for it. One technique is to interview them directly. A related method is the survey (sometimes referred to as a questionnaire), which is especially useful when information from many people is needed.
Chapter 2 NATURAL SELECTION AND ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR NATURAL SELECTION
- the evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit offspring, CHARLES DARWIN
- traveled around the world in the 19th century and observed many different species of animals in their natural surroundings. ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES (1859) BY CHARLES DARWIN
- noted that most organisms reproduce at rates that would cause enormous increases in the population of most species and yet populations remain nearly constant. He reasoned that an intense, constant struggle for food, water, and resources must occur among the many young born each generation, because many of the young do not survive. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
- emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior ● FIT - ability to bear offspring that survive long enough to bear offspring to their own. Natural selection favors behaviors that increase reproductive success - the ability to pass your genes to the next generation DAVID BUSS
- influential in stimulating new interest in how evolution can explain human behavior, as evolution contributes to our physical features such as body shape and height, it also pervasively influences our psychological make up, such as how we make decisions, how aggressive we are, our fears and mating patterns. PAUL BALTES (2003)
- the benefits conferred by evolutionary selection decrease with age
- natural selection operates primarily on characteristics that are tied to reproductive fitness, which extends through the earlier part of adulthood
- selection primarily operates during the first half of life ALBERT BANDURA (1998)
- acknowledges the important influence of evolution on human adaptation. - HE REJECTS WHAT HE CALLS “ONE-SIDED EVOLUTIONISM” which sees social behavior as strictly the product of evolved biology.
- alternative is a bidirectional view in which environmental and biological conditions influence each other
- evolutions does not dictate behavior THE COLLABORATIVE GENES ● CHROMOSOMES
- are threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). ● DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - a complex molecule that has a double helix shape, like a spiral staircase and contains genetic information ● GENES - the units of hereditary information are short segments of DNA. They help cells to reproduce themselves and to assemble proteins. ● PROTEINS - are the building blocks of cells as well as the regulators that direct the body's processes - each gene has its own location - its own designated place on a particular chromosome. ● GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION METHOD - to identify genetic variations linked to particular disease, such as obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease, or Alzheimer disease ● LINKAGE ANALYSIS - the goal is to discover the location of a gene (or genes) in relation to a marker gene (whose position is already known), is often used to search for disease-related genes ● NEXT - GENERATION SEQUENCING - used to describe the vast increase in genetic data generated at a much reduced cost and in a much shorter period of time than in the past. ● THOUSAND GENOMES PROJECT - the most detailed study of human genetic variation to date - has the goal of determining the genomic sequences of at least 1,000 individuals from different ethnic groups around the world DAVID MOORE (2001) - emphasized by titling his book “ THE DEPENDENT GENE” - a gene does not act independently ACTIVITY OF GENES (GENETIC EXPRESSION) - affected by their environment ● METHYLATION - tiny atoms attached themselves outside of a gene. this process makes the gene more or less capable of receiving and responding to biochemical signals from the body
Chapter 2 GENES AND CHROMOSOMES MITOSIS, MEIOSIS, and FERTILIZATION
- all cells in the body except sperm & egg, have chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. ● MITOSIS
- reproduce through a process
- the cell's nucleus - including the chromosomes - duplicates itself and the cell divides ● MEIOSIS
- forms eggs and sperm (or gametes ). During meiosis, a cell of the testes (in men) or ovaries (in women) duplicates its chromosomes but then divides twice, thus forming four cells, each of which has only half of the genetic material of the parent cell. By the end of meiosis, each egg or sperm has 23 unpaired chromosomes. ● FERTILIZATION
- an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell called a zygote the 23 unpaired chromosomes from the egg and the 23 unpaired chromosomes from the sperm combine to form one set of 23 paired chromosomes-one chromosome of each pair coming from the mother's egg and the other from the father's sperm. SOURCES OF VARIABILITY
- the human genetic process creates several important sources of variability ● IDENTICAL TWINS (monozygotic twins)
- develop from a single zygote that splits into two genetically identical replicas, each of which becomes a person. ● FRATERNAL TWINS (dizygotic twins)
- develop when two eggs are fertilized by different sperm, creating two zygotes that are genetically no more similar than ordinary siblings. ● MUTATED GENE
- a mistake by cellular machinery, or damage from an environmental agent such as radiation ● SUSCEPTIBILITY GENES
- make the individual more vulnerable to specific disease or accelerated aging ● LONGEVITY GENES
- make the individual less vulnerable to certain diseases and more likely to live to an older age
● GENOTYPE
- all of a person’s genetic material ● PHENOTYPE
- consists of observable characteristics. include physical characteristics (such as height, weight, and hair color) and psychological characteristics (such as personality and intelligence). GENETIC PRINCIPLES DOMINANT - RECESSIVE GENES ● DOMINANT
- one gene of a pair always exert its effects ● RECESSIVE GENE
- overrides the potential influence of other gene ● DOMINANT-RECESSIVE GENES PRINCIPLES
- a recessive gene exerts its influence only if the two genes of a pair are both recessive SEX-LINKED GENES ● X-LINKED INHERITANCE
- when a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome ● CARRIERS
- females who have one abnormal copy of the gene on the X chromosome GENETIC IMPRINTING
- occurs when the expression of a gene has different effects depending on whether the mother or the father parsed on the gene POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
- many different genes determine characteristics. even a simple characteristics such as height reflects the interaction of many genes as well as the influence of the environment GENE-GENE lNTERACTION
- used to describe studies that focus on the interdependent process by which two or more genes influence characteristics, behavior, diseases, development CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES ● CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
- sometimes a gamete (meiosis) is formed in which the male's sperm and/or the female's ovum do not have their normal set of 23 chromosomes. ● DOWN SYNDROME
- a form of intellectual disability caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21
Chapter 2 ADOPTION
- a social and legal process that establishes a parent-child relationship between persons unrelated at birth THREE PATHWAYS TO ADOPTION
- domestic adoption from the public welfare system
- domestic infant adoption through private agencies and intermediaries
- International adoption BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
- the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development, behavior genetics does not identify the extent to which genetics or the environment affects an individual's traits. ● TWIN STUDY - behavioral similarity of identical twins, is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS ● PASSIVE GENOTYPE - ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - exist when the natural parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child. ● EVOCATIVE GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - exist when the child's genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments. ● ACTIVE (NICHE-PICKING) GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating - NICHE-PICKING - finding a setting that is suited to one's genetically influenced abilities. THE EPIGENETIC VIEW AND GENE EPIGENETIC VIEW
- states that development reflects an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment GENE X ENVIRONMENT (G X E) INTERACTION ❋ the epigenetic mechanisms involve the actual molecular modification of the DNA strand as a result of environmental inputs in ways that alter gene functioning ❋ the interaction of a specific measured variation in DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment
❋ NOTES
» 3 types of ADHD ( ATTENTION DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER )
- Impulsive inattentive
- Hyperactive
- Combined » Traits
- made by personality
- fluid
- you can change depending on the environment to make up a personality ● AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
- a neurological and developmental disorder that affects how people interact with others, communicate, learn, and behave
Chapter 3 THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- typical prenatal development, which begins with fertilization and ends with birth, takes between 266 and 280 days (38 to 40 weeks) THE GERMINAL PERIOD
- the period of prenatal development that takes place during the first two weeks after conception.
- It includes the creation of the fertilized egg, called a zygote; cell division; and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall ● DIFFERENTIATION - specialization of cells to perform various tasks-starts to take place by approximately one week after conception ● BLASTOCYST - group of cells
- consists of an inner mass of cells that will eventually develop into the embryo ● TROPHOBLAST - an outer layer of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo ● IMPLANTATION - attachment of the zygote the uterine wall, takes place about 11 to 15 days after conception THE EMBRYONIC PERIOD
- the period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception.
- the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs appear. ● EMBRYO’S ENDODERM - the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems. ● MESODERM - the middle layer, which will become the circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system. ● ECTODERM - the outermost layer, which will become the nervous system and brain, sensory receptors (ears, nose, and eyes, for example), and skin parts. ● AMNION - is a sac (bag or envelope) that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. ● AMNIOTIC FLUID - provides an environment that is temperature and humidity controlled, as well as shockproof. ● UMBILICAL CORD - contains two arteries and one vein, and connects the baby to the placenta. ● PLACENTA - consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join. ● ORGANOGENESIS - the name given to the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development.
THE FETAL PERIOD
- is the prenatal period between two months after conception and birth in typical pregnancies.
- lasting about seven months. ● CONCEPTION to 4 weeks
- Less than 1/10 inch long - beginning development of spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart, and lungs
- amniotic sac envelops the preliminary tissues of entire body
- is called a “zygote” ● 8 weeks
- about 0.6 inch long
- face is forming with rudimentary eyes, ears, mouth, and tooth buds
- arms and legs are moving
- brain is forming
- fetal heartbeat is detectable with ultrasound
- Is called an “embryo” ● 12 weeks
- About 2 inches long and wrights about 0. ounce
- can move arms, legs, fingers, and toes
- fingerprints are present
- can smile, frown, suck, and swallow
- sex is distinguishable
- can urinate
- is called a “fetus” ● 16 weeks
- about 5 inches long and weighs about 3. ounces
- heartbeat is strong
- skin is thin, transparent
- downy hair (lanugo) covers body
- fingernails and toenails are forming
- has coordinated movements; is able to roll over in amniotic fluid ● 20 weeks
- about 6.5 inches long and weighs about 11 ounces
- heartbeat is audible with ordinary stethoscope
- sucks thumb
- hiccups
- Hair, eyelashes, eyebrows are present ● 24 weeks
- is about 12 inches long and weighs about 1.3 pounds
- skin is wrinkled and covered with proactive coating (vernix caseosa)
- eyes are open
- waste matter is collected in bowl
- has strong grip ● 28 weeks
- about 15 inches long and weighs about 2.
- adding body fat
Chapter 3 ● HEROIN - heroin show several behavioral difficulties at birth; difficulties include withdrawal symptoms - tremors, irritability and abnormal crying ● INCOMPATIBLE BLOOD TYPES ● ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS - hazard to the embryo or fetus - radiation, toxic, wastes, and other chemical pollutants ● MATERNAL DISEASES - maternal diseases and infections can produce defects in offspring by crossing the placental barrier, or they can cause damage during birth
- RUBELLA (GERMAN MEASLES) - one disease that can cause prenatal defects - AIDS - is a sexually transmitted infection that is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which destroys the body's immune system
- A mother can infect her offspring with HIV /AIDS in three ways:
- during gestation across the placenta
- during delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids
- postpartum (after birth) through breastfeeding OTHER PARENTAL FACTORS ● MATERNAL DIET AND NUTRITION - a developing embryo or fetus depends completely on its mother for nutrition, which comes from the mother's blood. ● MATERNAL AGE - when possible harmful effects on the fetus and infant are considered, two maternal age groups are of special interest: adolescents and women 35 years and older
- mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties. - DOWN SYNDROME - has distinctive facial characteristics , short limbs, intellectual disability, and motor difficulties ● EMOTIONAL STATES AND STATES - when a pregnant woman experiences intense fears, anxieties, and other emotions or negative mood states, physiological changes occur that may affect her fetus ● PATERNAL FACTORS - men's exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or to diseases such as childhood cancer. PRENATAL CARE
- involves a defined schedule of visits for medical care, which typically includes screening for manageable conditions and treatable diseases that can affect the baby or the mother
- In addition to medical care,prenatal programs often include comprehensive educational, social, and nutritional services THE BIRTH PROCESS STAGES OF BIRTH
- birth process occurs in three stages ● FIRST BIRTH STAGE: is the longest of the three
- uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the beginning and last up to a minute.
- these contractions cause the woman's cervix to stretch and open. the contractions come closer together, appearing every two to five minutes.
- contractions dilate the cervix to an opening of about 10 centimeters (4 inches) ● SECOND BIRTH STAGE
- when the baby's head starts to move throng the cervix and the birth canal ● THIRD BIRTH STAGE / AFTERBIRTH
- at which time the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled. this final stage is the shortest of the three birth stages , lasting only minutes. **CHILDBIRTH SETTING AND ATTENDANTS ● MIDWIVES
- MIDWIFERY** - is a profession that provides health care to women during pregnancy, birth, and the postpartum period
- may also give women information about reproductive health and annual gynecological examinations. ● DOULAS - doula = "a woman that helps”
- is a caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth METHODS OF CHILDBIRTH MEDICATION ● ANALGESIA - used to relieve pain, includes tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics (such as Demerol). ● ANESTHESIA - used in late first-stage labor and during delivery to block sensation in an area of the body or to block consciousness. ● EPIDURAL BLOCK - regional anesthesia that numbs the woman's body from the waist down ● OXYTOCIN - is a hormone that promotes uterine contractions; a synthetic form called Pitocin
- widely used to decrease the duration of the first stage of labor.
Chapter 3 NATURAL AND PREPARED CHILDBIRTH ● NATURAL CHILDBIRTH - is the method that aims to reduce the mother's pain by decreasing her fear by providing information about childbirth and teaching her and her partner to use breathing methods and relaxation techniques during delivery
- BRADLEY METHOD - type of natural childbirth, involves husbands as coaches, relaxation for easier birth, and prenatal nutrition and exercise. - PREPARED CHILDBIRTH OR LAMAZE METHOD - includes a special breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor, as well as more detailed education about anatomy and physiology. ● CESAREAN DELIVERY - the baby is removed from the mother's uterus through an incision made in her abdomen.
- performed if the baby is lying crosswise in the uterus, if the baby's head is too large to pass through the mother's pelvis, if the baby develops complications, or if the mother is bleeding vaginally. - BREECH POSITION - baby's buttocks are the first part to emerge from the vagina ASSESSING THE NEWBORN ● APGAR SCALE - is widely used to assess the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth.
- evaluates an infant's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex irritability. ● BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (NBAS) - typically performed within 24 to 36 hours after birth. It is also used as a sensitive index of neurological competence up to one month after birth for typical infants and as a measure in many studies of infant development
- assesses the newborn's neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and objects. ● NEONATAL INTENSIVE CARE UNIT NETWORK NEUROBEHAVIORAL SCALE (NNNS) - provides another assessment of the newborn's behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities ● NEWBORN SCREENING - identifies conditions that can affect a child’s long-term health or survival. PRETERM AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT INFANTS PRETERM AND SMALL FOR DATE INFANTS ● LOW BIRTH WEIGHT - infants weigh less than 5 pounds 8 ounces at birth. - VERY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT -newborns weigh less than 3 pounds 4 ounces - EXTREME LOW BIRTH WEIGHT - newborns weigh less than 2 pounds. ● PRETERM INFANTS - are those born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term-in other words, before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth). ● SMALL FOR DATES INFANTS (also called small for gestational age ) - birth weight is below normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered. They weigh less than 90 percent of all babies of the same gestational age. CONSEQUENCES OF PRETERM BIRTH AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT ● EXTREMELY PRETERM INFANTS - born at less than 28 weeks gestation ● VERY PRETERM INFANTS - born at less than 33 weeks of gestational age CURTURING LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AND PRETERM INFANTS ● KANGAROO CARE - involves skin-to-skin contact in which the baby, wearing only a diaper, is held upright against the parent's bare chest
- typically practiced for 2 to 3 hours per day, skin-to-skin over an extended time in early infancy THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD
- the period after childbirth or delivery that lasts for about six weeks or until the mother's body has completed its adjustment and has returned to a nearly prepregnant state
- involves a great deal of adjustment and adaptation
- adjustments needed are physical, emotional, and psychological PHYSICAL ADJUSTMENTS
- a woman's body makes numerous physical adjustments in the first days and weeks after child birth. EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENTS
- emotional fluctuations are common for mothers in the postpartum period. For some women,emotional
Chapter 4 PATTERNS OF GROWTH ● CEPHALOCAUDAL PATTERN
- the sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top-the head-with physical growth and differentiation of features gradually working their way down from top to bottom ● PROXIMODISTAL PATTERN
- the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities. HEIGHT AND WEIGHT
- average North American newborn is 20 inches long and weighs 7.6 pounds. Ninety-five percent of full term newborns are 18 to 22 inches long and weigh between 5 and 10 pounds. THE BRAIN
- the infant that began as a single cell is estimated to have a brain that contains approximately 100 billion nerve cells, or neurons. ● SHAKEN BABY SYNDROME - includes brain swelling and hemorrhaging ● MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY OR MEG - brain imaging machines to assess infants' brain activity. MEG maps brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents and is being used to assess such perceptual and cognitive activities as vision, hearing, and language in infants THE BRAIN'S DEVELOPMENT MAPPING THE BRAIN ● FOREBRAIN - farthest from the spinal cord
- also includes the cerebral cortex and several structures beneath it. ● CEREBRAL CORTEX - covers the forebrain like a wrinkled cap. ● FRONTAL LOBE - involved in voluntary movement, thinking, personality, and intentionality or purpose. ● TEMPORAL LOBE - have an active role in hearing, language processing, and memory. ● PARIETAL LOBE - play important roles in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control. ● OCCIPITAL LOBE - function in vision. ● LEFT HEMISPHERE - speech and grammar ● RIGHT HEMISPHERE - humor and the use of metaphors ● LATERALIZATION - specialization of function in the hemisphere of the cerebral cortex
CHANGES IN NEURON
- the type of nerve cells called neurons send electrical and chemical signals, communicating with each other ● NEURON - is a nerve cell that handles information processing ● AXON - carries signals away from the cell body ● DENDRITES - carry signals toward cell body ● MYELIN SHEATH - layer of fat cells, encases many axons, insulates axons and helps electrical signals travel faster down the axon - MYELINATION - involved in providing energy to neurons and in communication ● NEUROTRANSMITTERS - terminal buttons, which release chemicals at the end of the axon ● SYNAPSES - tiny gaps between neurons' fibers. Chemical interactions in synapses connect axons and dendrites, allowing information to pass from neuron to neuron EARLY EXPERIENCE AND THE BRAIN
- children who grow up in a deprived environment may have depressed brain activity THE NEUROCONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW
- emphasizes the importance of considering interactions between experience and gene expression in the brain's development, a. biological processes (genes) and environmental conditions (enriched or impoverished,) influence the brain's development; b. the brain has plasticity and is context dependent; c. the child's cognitive development is closely linked to development of the brain.
Chapter 4 SLEEP ● INFANT SLEEP - typical newborn sleeps approximately 18 hours a day, but newborns vary greatly in how much they sleep
- the range is from about 10 hours to about 21 hours a day. ● REM SLEEP
- the eyes flutter beneath closed lids ● NON-REM SLEEP
- type of eye movement does not occur and sleep is more quiet ● SHARED SLEEPING
- sleeping arrangements for newborns vary from culture to culture ● SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS)
- a condition that occurs when infants stop breathing, usually during the night, and die suddenly without any apparent reason ● SLEEP AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
- the link between infant sleep and children's cognitive functioning likely occurs because of sleep's role in brain maturation and memory consolidation, which may improve daytime alertness and learning. NUTRITION ● NUTRITIONAL NEEDS AND EATING BEHAVIOR
- individual differences among infants in terms of their nutrient reserves, body composition, growth rates, and activity patterns make defining actual nutrient needs difficult ● BREAST VS BOTTLE FEEDING
- for the first four to six months of life, human milk or an alternative formula is the baby's source of nutrients and energy.
- breastfeeding is better for the baby's health OUTCOMES / BENEFITS FOR THE CHILD ● Gastrointestinal infection ● Respiratory tract infections ● Allergies ● Asthma ● Ear, throat, and sinus infections ● Overweight and obesity ● Diabetes ● SIDS ● Hospitalization OUTCOMES / BENEFITS FOR THE MOTHER ● Breast cancer, Consistent evidence indicates a lower incidence of breast cancer in women who breastfeed their infants ● Ovarian cancer Evidence also reveals a reduction in ovarian cancer in women who breastfeed their infants ● Type 2 diabetes some evidence suggests that there is a reduction in type 2 diabetes in women who breastfeed their infants ➢ MALNUTRITION IN INFANCY - early weaning of infants from breast milk to inadequate sources of nutrients, such as unsuitable and unsanitary cow's milk formula, can cause protein deficiency and malnutrition in infants. THE DYNAMIC SYSTEMS VIEW ARNOLD GESELL (1934)
- thought his painstaking observations had revealed how people develop their motor skills. He had discovered that infants and children develop rolling, sitting, standing, and other motor skills in a fixed order and within specific time frames. ➢ DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY - infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting
- motor development is not a passive process in which genes dictate the unfolding of a sequence of skills over time. REFLEXES
- built-in reactions to stimuli; they govern the newborn's movements, which are automatic and beyond the newborn's control.
- they allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment before they have had the opportunity to learn. ● ROOTING REFLEX - occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched ● SUCKING REFLEX - occurs when newborns automatically suck an object placed in their mouth ● MORO REFLEX - occurs in response to a sudden, intense nose or movements
- believed to be a way of grabbing for support while falling; it would have had survival value for our primate ancestors ● GRASPING REFLEX - occurs when something to touches the infant's palms
Chapter 4 OTHER SENSES ➢ HEARING ● LOUDNESS - infants cannot hear soft sounds quite as well as adults can; a stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult. ● PITCH - the perception of the frequency of a sound ● LOCALIZATION - by 6 months of age, they are more proficient at localizing sounds or detecting their origins. ➢ TOUCH AND PAIN - Newborns do respond to touch. A touch to the cheek produces a turning of the head; a touch to the lips produces sucking movements. Regular gentle tactile stimulation prenatally may have positive developmental outcomes. ➢ SMELL - newborns can differentiate odors ➢ TASTE - sensitivity to taste is present even before birth INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
- involves integrating information from two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing NATURE, NURTURE, AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT ● NATIVISTS - nature proponents ● EMPIRICISTS - emphasize learning and experience
- Gibsons argued that a key question in infant perception is what information is available in the environment and how infants learn to generate, differentiate, and discriminate the information-certainly not a nativist view.
Chapter 5 COGNITIVE PROCESSES ● SCHEMES
- are actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
- structured by simple actions that can be performed on objects, such as sucking, looking, and grasping. ● ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION — ASSIMILATION - when children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences. — ACCOMMODATION - occurs when children adjust their schemes to take new information and experiences into account. ● ORGANIZATION
- grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system. ● EQUILIBRATION AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT — EQUILIBRATION - mechanism by which children shift from one stage of thought to the next. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE - from birth to about 2 years of age.
- this stage of cognitive development, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions SENSORIMOTOR SUBSTAGES: ● SIMPLE REFLEXES
- first sensorimotor substage - corresponds to the first month after birth.
- sensation and action are coordinated primarily through reflexive behaviors such as rooting and sucking. ● FIRST HABITS AND PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS ー second sensorimotor substage ー develops between l and 4 months of age. ー during this substage, the infant's own body continues to be the center of attention ー 2 TYPES OF SCHEME ー HABIT - a scheme based on a reflex that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus. ー PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS - a scheme based on the attempt to reproduce an event that initially occurred by chance, ー CIRCULAR REACTION - a repetitive action ● SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS
- third sensorimotor substage - develops between 4 and 8 months of age
- infant becomes more object-oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self.
- an action repeated because of its consequences. The infant also imi ● COORDINATION OF SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS
- fourth sensorimotor substage - develops between 8 and 12 months of age
- the infant must coordinate vision and touch, eye and hand. ● TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS, NOVELTY, AND CURIOSITY
- fifth sensorimotor substage - develops between 12 and 18 months of age.
- infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things that they can make happen to objects. ー TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS
- schemes in which the infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects, continually doing new things to them and exploring the results. ● INTERNALIZATION OF SCHEMES
- sixth and final sensorimotor substage
- between 18 and 24 months of age.
- the infant develops the ability to use primitive symbols.
- SYMBOL - an internalized sensory image or word that represents an event ○ PRIMITIVE SYMBOLS - permit the infant to think about concrete events without directly acting them out or perceiving them. ● OBJECT PERMANENCE
- understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
