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Chapter
Sections
1. Religion and
Sociology
2. Theoretical
Perspectives
3. Religious Organiza-
tion and Religiosity
4. Religion in the
United States
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you
will be able to
meaning of religion.
- describe the different views of
religion as seen by the major
theoretical perspectives.
- distinguish the basic types of
religious organization.
nature of religiosity.
- define secularization and
describe its relationship to
religiosity in the United
States.
fundamentalism in the
United States from the
sociological perspective.
Religion
More than thirty years after the Bea-
tles’ last recording session, the group’s
tapes and CDs are still selling by the
millions. But there was a moment when
American radio stations banned their mu-
sic and many teenagers stomped on their
records.
The angry reaction was the result of
a comment by John Lennon in a 1966
interview: “Christianity will go,” Lennon
said. “It will vanish and shrink... We’re
more popular than Jesus now, I don’t
know which will go first—rock’n’roll or
Christianity.”
When the interview was published in
the United States, there was an uproar
that caught some by surprise. If the
entire interview had been printed, the
response might have been less extreme,
but Lennon was forced to apologize.
It seemed that many young Americans
took their religion very seriously.
The evidence suggests that, unlike
people living in many industrialized
nations, Americans are fairly religious.
This chapter looks at religion as an
institution, as well as at the ways that
people express their religious beliefs.
Chapter Overview Visit the Sociology and You Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14— Chapter Overviews to preview chapter information.
Applying
Sociology
Chapter 14 Religion 465
represents the values, sentiments, power, and beliefs of all members of the baseball community. What was formerly a profane object is now in the process of gaining some of the qualities of a sacred object (Cuzzort and King, 1976:27). Babe Ruth’s bat illustrates two particulars about the sociological study of religion. First, a profane object can become sacred, and vice versa. Second, sociologists can deal with religion without becoming involved in theo- logical issues. By focusing on the cultural and social aspects of religion, sociologists avoid questions about the ultimate validity of any particular religion. This point is so important that it needs more explanation.
The Sociological Study of Religion The sociological study of religion involves looking at a set of meanings attached to a world beyond human observation. Because this nonphysical world cannot be directly observed, this task is particularly difficult. Sociolo- gists have to ask themselves hard questions: How can we find evidence for something that can’t be seen? How can we remain objective about such a value-laden subject, especially when we have our own beliefs? Is science really the proper tool to evaluate religion? Obviously, sociologists cannot study the unob- servable. Consequently, they approach religion as a human creation and focus on social aspects of religion that can be measured and observed. Sociologists, then, are not in the business of determining which religions people ought to follow. Sociologists keep their own faith personal while investigating the social dimen- sions of religion. Like people in any other occupation, sociologists themselves follow a variety of religions.
Section Assessment
1. How does the sociological defi nition of religion differ from how you previ- ously thought of religion? 2. How do sociologists manage to study religion if they can’t see the spiritual world?
Critical Thinking
3. Evaluating Information Do you think religion can be studied scientifically? Using the material just presented, make an argument for or against this practice.
Is this Ford Mustang convertible a sacred or secular object? Why?
Sociologists study the social aspects of religion. One such aspect is the charitable work done by members of different religious organizations.
466 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Religion at War
As part of studying the effects of religion on society, sociologists note that throughout history, religion has both promoted social stability and led to social conflict. In this excerpt from the article Religion at War, the conflict aspect is highlighted. In virtually every one of the world’s 480 major wars since 1700, each side has imagined itself to be exclusively on the side of God, Gött, Allah, Dieu or other names for the deity. Religion is often so closely linked with ethnic or national identity as to be seen as inseparable from them. Thus a struggle for expressions of ethnic or national identity is experienced as a religious war.
This is so of the current unrest in the Punjab, cre- ated by Sikh demands for a separate Sikh state. Religion evokes powerful emotions and com- mitments. It is capable of producing believers whose faith moves them to acts of great self- sacrifice and charity. At the same time it can pro- duce believers who feel that their faith calls them to struggle violently in what they believe to be a just cause. One example is the Hindi/Muslim ten- sion in India focused on Ayodhya. Here, a mosque built in the 15th century was destroyed in 1992 by militant Hindus because it is believed to have been built over the birthplace of the Hindu god Rama. While the majority of Hindis and Muslims have lived together peacefully for generations, extrem- ists on both sides are capable of arousing violence through use of powerful religious symbols. In many faiths, the issue of whether warfare is permissible has given rise to various theories of the just war. Such theories seek to define whether believers can ever engage in the use of violence. The usual conclusion is that violence—including warfare—is only acceptable in pursuit of a greater good. The problem, however, is who defines the greater good? Source: Joanne O’Brien and Martin Palmer, The State of Religion Atlas. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993, p. 117. Reprinted by permission.
Thinking It Over Does functionalism or conflict theory best explain the link between strong religious conviction and war? Why?
Activists of a Hindu religious sect demand the right to build a temple on the site of a demolished mosque. Why are wars and conflicts often rooted in religious beliefs and values?
468 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Figure 14.1 Division of World Population by Religions* This graph compares the number of all religious believers belonging to a particular religion to the total estimated world population.
- Figures shown are estimates and do not total to 100 due to rounding errors.
legitimate to justify or give official approval to
explanation rooted in the function religion performs for society. The essen- tial function of religion, he believed, was to provide through sacred symbols a mirror for members of society to see themselves. Through religious ritu- als, people worship their societies and thereby remind themselves of their shared past and future existence. Following Durkheim’s lead, sociologists have identified the following social functions of religion. Religion gives formal approval to existing social arrangements. Religious doc- trine and scripture legitimate^ the status quo. Religion, then, justifies or gives authority to social norms and customs. A society’s religion explains why the society is—and should be—the way it is. It tells us why some people have power and others do not, why some are rich and others poor, why some are common and others elite. Many social customs and rituals are based on religion. According to Durkheim, legitimation is the central function of religion. Religion encourages a sense of unity. Religion, according to Durkheim, is the glue that holds society together. Without religion, society would be cha- otic. As Cuzzort and King have stated (1976), Durkheim “provided the greatest justification for religious doctrine ever formulated by a social scientist when he claimed that all societies must have religious commit- ments. Without religious dedication there is no social order.” In some cases, though, religion causes societies to fragment, even to the point of civil war. Religion divides Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. Thus, while it is accurate to say that religion is usually a source of social unity, it can also divide a society. (See Another Place, page 466.) Religion provides a sense of understanding. Religion not only explains the nature of social life and encourages social unity, it also provides individ- uals meaning beyond day-to-day life. People mark important events in life—birth, sexual maturity, marriage, death—with religious ceremonies and explain such events in religious terms. Religion gives believers a sense
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Chapter 14 Religion 469
of their place in the cosmos and gives eternal significance to a short and uncertain earthly existence. Religion promotes a sense of belonging. Religious organizations provide opportunities for people to share important ideas, ways of life, and ethnic or racial backgrounds. Religion supplies a kind of group identity. People
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Interpreting the Map
1. Based on the information shown in this
map, identify two countries where you would expect to find lower rates of suicide than in England.
2. What information on the map did you use
in your analysis?
Religions of
the World
This map displays the worldwide distribution of all religions. Emile Durkheim showed that suicide rates vary according to group character- istics. One of these characteristics is religious background. For example, Durkheim showed that the suicide rate is lower among Catholics than among Protestants.
Chapter 14 Religion 471
How did Weber link Protestantism and capitalism? Whereas
Marx believed that religion works against social change, Max Weber sug- gested that religion sometimes encourages social change. He pointed to the relationship between Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. Weber won- dered why capitalism emerged in northwestern Europe and America and not in other parts of the world. A possible answer lay in what he termed the spirit
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Interpreting the Map
1. Do you see any patterns of inequality in
women’s rights in religion? Explain.
2. Where in the world would a woman be most
likely to head an entire religious organization? Support your answer. Do some research to see if this has occurred. If it has not, explain why.
3. How does the United States compare with the Scandinavian countries in
terms of gender equality? Why do you think this difference exists?
4. How would you explain the mixed status of women in India?
Gender
Inequality in
Religion
Women have been fighting for equal rights in all aspects of society—reli- gion as well as government and business. In some religions women have equal status within their orders. Other religions see feminism as a “West- ern” issue and irrelevant to their faiths. This map shows how major denom- inations in each country view the status of women.
Adapted from The State of Religion Atlas, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.
472 Unit 4 Social Institutions
of capitalism and the Protestant ethic. With capitalism, work became a moral obligation rather than a mere necessity. If businesses were to grow, money (capital) had to be put back into the business rather than spent. Investment for the future was more important than immediate consumption. All of this Weber called the spirit of capitalism. Most major religions did not define hard work as an obligation or demand the reinvestment of capital for further profits (rather than for immediate enjoyment). But some Protestant sects did. Here, then, was a reli- gion with a cluster of values, norms, beliefs, and atti- tudes that favored the emergence of modern capitalism. Weber referred to this cluster of values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes that stressed the virtue of hard work, thrift, and self-discipline as the Protestant ethic.
What is the nature of the Protestant ethic?
The Protestant ethic is often associated with John Calvin (1509–1564), an early Protestant theologian. Calvin’s followers were known as Calvinists. Calvinist beliefs illustrate several features of the Protestant ethic. According to Calvin, God identifies his chosen by rewarding them in this world. Therefore, the more successful people were in this life, the more sure they were of being a member of God’s select few. Consumption beyond necessity was considered sin- ful; those who engaged in self-pleasure were agents of the devil. Calvinists believed there was an underlying pur- pose of life: glorification of God on earth through one’s occupational calling. Because everyone’s mate- rial rewards were actually God’s, and the purpose of life was to glorify God, profits should be multiplied (through reinvestment) rather than used in the pur- suit of personal pleasures.
Symbolic Interactionism and Religion Sociologist Peter Berger (1990) captured the relationship between religion and symbolic interactionism in his book, The Sacred Canopy. In this book, Berger explored the idea that humans create from their religious traditions a canopy, or cover, of symbolic meanings, to “lay” over the secular world. These otherworldly symbolic meanings are used to guide everyday social interac- tion. Religious beliefs, rituals, and ideas tell people the difference between the sacred and the profane and provide stability and security in a changing and uncertain existence. Symbolic interactionism, for example, helps us understand the expres- sion “there are no atheists in foxholes.” Insecurity and uncertainty, of course, are at a peak in the life-and-death situation of war, and the desire to regain security and certainty is a natural human response. Religious mean- ings, especially those related to an afterlife, can offer some relief. Japanese kamikaze pilots in World War II and Middle Eastern terrorists infuse their
spirit of capitalism the obligation to reinvest money in business rather than to spend it
Protestant ethic a set of values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes stressing hard work, thrift, and self-discipline
The theology of sixteenth-century theologian John Calvin formed the basis for the Protestant ethic.
474 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Aldous Huxley’s 1932 novel Brave New World describes a society in which babies are created scientifically. Another novel— The Boys from Brazil, writ- ten by Ira Levin and published in 1976—features a story about German Nazis cloning Adolf Hitler. Both of these books play on our fears about the effects and ethics of human cloning (a nonsexual creation of a genetically identical copy). In February 1997, the potential for cloning technology went from fiction to fact with the birth of a cloned sheep named Dolly. This birth and the subsequent cloning of mice, sheep, and pigs have made the ethical consider- ations of human cloning much more pertinent today than just a few years ago. Dr. Brigitte Boisselier, head of a biotechnology company called Clonaid, claims that this company is responsible for the births of at least 14 human clones. Scientists question this claim, however, most particularly because Boisselier is a member of a fringe religious sect that believes humans are descended from clones created 25,000 years ago by space aliens. In addi- tion, two other scientists—a fertility clinic operator in Lexington, Kentucky, and an Italian gynecologist—are offering cloning services to help infertile and gay couples have children. The success that these scientists claim also has not been independently verified. Although 60 percent of Americans support therapeutic cloning— creating human embryos to harvest their stem cells for medical research— only 9 percent find the reproductive cloning of humans morally acceptable (Gallup, 2005). In 2005, the United Nations gave up on an attempt to create a worldwide ban on human cloning (Biever, 2005). Many member nations were unwilling to ban therapeutic cloning, which supporters believe may help millions of people worldwide suffering from diseases such as diabetes and Parkinson’s disease. Other supporters believe that since advances in technology will make human cloning a reality, such cloning should be legal- ized and regulated to ensure that it is carried out in a safe, scientific manner. Opponents of human cloning are skeptical that such cloning can be conducted safely and believe that it jeopardizes the health of potential child clones. They point to the fact that experiments in animal cloning have produced few live births, and that many of the animal clones that are born die shortly thereafter from genetic abnormalities. Many traditional religious groups also have expressed serious concerns about cloning. These oppo- nents believe that if humans are cloned, people will be placing themselves in a position only God has occupied. Human cloning is the latest in a long line of medical technologies that affect the length and quality of life. The ethical considerations of such a procedure, however, will be debated for years to come.
Analyzing the Trends What role, if any, should religion play in the debate over human cloning? Include some information from this chapter to support your answer.
Is Cloning
Humans Ethical?
Chapter 14 Religion 475
SectionSection
church a life-encompassing religious organization to which all members of a society belong
Key Terms
church (p. 475) denomination (p. 475) sect (p. 478) cult (p. 478) religiosity (p. 479)
The Amish are a religious sect. How does a sect differ from a church, denomination, or cult?
denomination one of several religious organizations that most members of a society accept as legitimate
Religious Organization
and Religiosity
Section Preview
The major forms of religious organization are churches, denominations, sects, and cults. Religiosity—the ways people express their religious interests and convictions—can be analyzed in terms of five dimensions: belief, ritual, intellect, experience, and consequences.
Religious Organization
I
n Western societies, most people practice religion through some organi- zational structure. For this reason, the nature of religious organization is an important component of the sociological study of religion. Early scholars identifi ed four basic types of religious organization: church, denomination, sect , and cult.
How do sociologists distinguish among the basic types
of religious organization? To sociologists, a church is a life-
encompassing religious organization to which all members of a society belong. This type of religious organization exists when religion and the state are closely intertwined. In Elizabethan England, for example, Archbishop Richard Hooker of the Church of England wrote that “there is not any man of the Church of England but the same man is also a member of the common- wealth; nor any man a member of the commonwealth which is not also of the Church of England.” As you can see, the sociological definition of church is different from the one commonly used in American society. When Americans talk about “churches,” they are actually referring to denominations. A denomination is one of several religious organizations that most mem- bers of a society accept as legitimate. Because denominations are not tied to the state, membership in them is voluntary, and competition among them
Chapter 14 Religion 477
Extremist religious groups claim to offer authenticity and naturalness in an “artificial” world. By emphasizing such things as natural foods, communal living apart from civili- zation, and a uniform dress code, these groups attempt to show they are not part of the flawed outside world. Religious movements may not actually be able to meet their followers’ needs any better than the outside world. Many of these religious groups lead to disillusionment, frustration, and bitterness when members realize that they cannot completely escape the outside world, which is full of uncertainty, confusion, fuzzy choices, and shades of gray. Moreover, many of these religious groups have joined the consumer society they profess to deplore, attractively pack- aging and selling themselves to the public. Not only may the new religious groups not solve the problems people in mod- ern society must face, many are as inauthentic as they accuse society of being. Some key questions exist to evaluate the authenticity of any religious group’s claims. For purposes of self-protection, these questions should be answered carefully before commit- ting to an extremist religious group. Does it require that you cut yourself off from family and friends? Does it consider drugs to be a major vehicle for true reli- gious experiences? Is corporal punishment or intensive, hours-long psycho- logical conditioning a part of its program? Does it claim to have special knowledge that can be revealed only to insiders? If the answer to any one of these questions is yes, you stand a chance of getting “hooked.” If the answers to several of these questions are positive, the chances of getting hooked increase dramatically.
Friends and family mourn the loss of loved ones who died in Jim Jones’s People’s Temple mass suicide.
Doing Sociology
1. Do you agree or disagree with the reasons given for why people join
extremist religious groups? Discuss each reason and explain why you agree or disagree.
2. Can you think of other reasons why people may be attracted to such
groups? Show that any reason you identify does not fit into one of the four reasons stated.
3. If you had a friend considering membership in an extremist religious
group, how would you use the information in this Sociology Today to discourage him or her?
478 Unit 4 Social Institutions
for members is socially acceptable. Being one religious organization among many, a denomination generally accepts the values and norms of the secular society and the state, although it may at times oppose them. As mentioned, most American “churches”—Methodist, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Baptist, Roman Catholic, and Reform Jew, for example—are actually denominations. A sect is a religious organization formed when members of an exist- ing religious organization break away in an attempt to reform the “parent” group. Generally, sect members believe that some valuable beliefs or tradi- tions have been lost by the parent organization, and they form their own group to save these features. Thus, they see themselves not as establishing a new religious faith but as redeeming an existing one. The withdrawal of a sect from the parent group is usually psychological, but some sects go farther and form communal groups apart from the larger society. The Separatists, or Pilgrims, who landed at Plymouth in 1620, wished to reform the Church of England from which they had separated. Another example is the Amish, a sect formed in 1693 when a Swiss bishop named Jacob Amman broke from the Mennonite church in Europe (Kraybill and Olshan, 1994). Less extreme sects in the United States today include the Seventh-Day Adventists, the Quakers, and the Assemblies of God. Unlike a sect, a cult is a religious organization whose characteristics are not drawn from existing religious traditions within a society. Whether imported from outside the society or created within the society, cults bring something new to the larger religious environment. We often think of cults as engag- ing in extreme behavior. The world has been shocked twice in recent years. In 1997, reports came of the ritualistic suicides of thirty-nine members of the Heaven’s Gate cult in California (Thomas, 1997). Dwarfing this incident was the mass killing of approximately 1,000 members of the Ugandan cult called the
sect a religious organization that arises out of a desire to reform an existing religious organization
cult a religious organization whose characteristics are not drawn from existing religious tradi- tions within a society
Student Web Activity Visit the Sociology and You Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter 14—Student Web Activities for an activity on religious organizations.
In 1997, thirty-nine members of the Heaven’s Gate cult in California committed ritualistic suicide. Most cults are not this dangerous, however.
480 Unit 4 Social Institutions
Consequences are the decisions and commitments people make as a result of religious beliefs, rituals, knowledge, or experiences. Consequences may be social, such as opposing or supporting capital punishment, or personal, as when practicing sexual abstinence before marriage or telling the truth regardless of the cost.
Section Assessment
1. In your own words, describe the difference between a cult and a sect. 2. Give one example of each of the five dimensions of
religiosity, using examples not given in the text.
Critical Thinking
3. Summarizing Information Of the dimensions of religiosity
discussed in the text, which do you think is most impor- tant to denominations today? Give reasons for your answer.
Source: National Center for Charitable Statistics, 2004.
Interpreting the Map
1. Which states have the most public charities? Why do you think these states have the most charities? 2. About how many public charities are based in your state? In neighboring states?
OR MORE n n n n n
.UMBER OF 0UBLIC #HARITIES
Public Charities
No matter their religion, Americans tend to believe it is important to help people less fortunate than themselves. In 2004 alone, individuals and busi- nesses in the United States contributed nearly $1.4 trillion to more than 820,000 public charities. This map shows the number of public charities based in each state.
Chapter 14 Religion 481
SectionSection
Key Terms
secularization (p. 482) fundamentalism (p. 485)
The U.S. guarantees religious freedom. Pictured clockwise from the bottom left are a Hindu priest in Ohio, an Islamic prayer group in Maine, a Baptist congregation in Alabama, and a Jewish Chanukah celebration in Maryland.
Religion in the
United States
Section Preview
Through the process of secularization, the sacred and the profane tend to become intermixed. There has been a revival of religious fundamentalism in the United States. Religious faiths can be analyzed by major social char- acteristics such as class and political tendencies.
The Development of Religion in America
T
he search for religious freedom was only one of many reasons Puritan colonists came to America—but it was an important one. From the outset, the Puritans viewed themselves as a religious example for the world to follow and admire. Sociologist Robert Bellah has described the American religious connection this way:
In the beginning, and to some extent ever since, Americans have interpreted their history as having religious meaning. They saw themselves as being a “people” in the classical and biblical sense of the word. They hoped they were a people of God (Bellah et al. 1992:2).
