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Biology Notes: Cell, Genetics, Ecology, Evolution, Plant, Microbiology, DNA, RNA, Genomics, Study notes of Biology

Romblon State University (Main Campus)Biology

Comprehensive notes on various topics in the field of biology, including cell biology, genetics, ecology, evolution, plant biology, microbiology, dna, rna, genomics, epigenetics, bioinformatics, and molecular evolution. The notes cover essential concepts, terminologies, examples, and applications of each topic.

Typology: Study notes

2023/2024

Available from 03/27/2024

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SIR JV NOTES SCIENCE BIOLOGY
SCIENCE (BIOLOGY)
Notes
TERMINOLOGIES
1. **Cell Biology:**
- **Introduction to cells:** Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living
organisms. They carry out essential processes such as metabolism, growth, and
reproduction.
- **Example:** A human body is composed of trillions of cells, each specialized for
specific functions such as nerve cells for transmitting signals and muscle cells for
movement.
- **Cell organelles:** Organelles are specialized structures within cells that perform
specific functions. For example, the nucleus contains genetic material (DNA),
mitochondria produce energy (ATP), and chloroplasts conduct photosynthesis in plant
cells.
- **Cell division:** Cells divide to reproduce and repair damaged tissues. Mitosis
produces two identical daughter cells, while meiosis produces gametes (sperm and
egg cells) with half the number of chromosomes.
- **Example:** Mitosis occurs during growth and tissue repair, while meiosis occurs
in sexual reproduction.
2. **Genetics:**
- **Inheritance and heredity:** Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from
parents to offspring. Traits are determined by genes, which are segments of DNA.
- **Example:** In Mendelian genetics, traits like flower color in pea plants are
determined by alleles inherited from each parent. For example, a plant with two
dominant alleles (YY) will have yellow flowers, while a plant with two recessive alleles
(yy) will have green flowers.
- **Punnett squares:** Punnett squares are tools used to predict the possible
outcomes of genetic crosses between organisms.
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SCIENCE (BIOLOGY)

Notes

TERMINOLOGIES

  1. Cell Biology:
    • Introduction to cells: Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living organisms. They carry out essential processes such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
    • Example: A human body is composed of trillions of cells, each specialized for specific functions such as nerve cells for transmitting signals and muscle cells for movement.
    • Cell organelles: Organelles are specialized structures within cells that perform specific functions. For example, the nucleus contains genetic material (DNA), mitochondria produce energy (ATP), and chloroplasts conduct photosynthesis in plant cells.
    • Cell division: Cells divide to reproduce and repair damaged tissues. Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells, while meiosis produces gametes (sperm and egg cells) with half the number of chromosomes.
    • Example: Mitosis occurs during growth and tissue repair, while meiosis occurs in sexual reproduction.
  2. Genetics:
    • Inheritance and heredity: Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring. Traits are determined by genes, which are segments of DNA.
    • Example: In Mendelian genetics, traits like flower color in pea plants are determined by alleles inherited from each parent. For example, a plant with two dominant alleles (YY) will have yellow flowers, while a plant with two recessive alleles (yy) will have green flowers.
    • Punnett squares: Punnett squares are tools used to predict the possible outcomes of genetic crosses between organisms.
  • Example: In a cross between two heterozygous parents (Yy x Yy), a Punnett square can be used to show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring.
  1. Ecology:
  • Ecosystems: An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and their physical environment.
  • Example: A forest ecosystem includes trees, plants, animals, microorganisms, soil, water, and climate factors like temperature and rainfall.
  • Food chains and webs: Food chains show the flow of energy from one organism to another in an ecosystem. Food webs illustrate interconnected food chains.
  • Example: In a terrestrial food chain, grass is eaten by a grasshopper, which is eaten by a frog, which is then consumed by a snake.
  • Environmental issues: Environmental issues such as pollution, habitat destruction, climate change, and overexploitation of natural resources impact ecosystems and biodiversity.
  • Example: Deforestation reduces habitat for many species, leading to loss of biodiversity and disruption of ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and water regulation.
  1. Evolution:
  • Theory of evolution: Evolution is the process by which species change over time through natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and other mechanisms.
  • Example: The fossil record provides evidence of evolutionary changes over millions of years, such as the transition from land-dwelling mammals to whales.
  • Natural selection: Natural selection is the mechanism by which organisms with favorable traits survive and reproduce more successfully than those with less favorable traits.
  • Example: Peppered moths in England during the Industrial Revolution demonstrated natural selection as the dark-colored moths became more prevalent
  • Plant reproduction: Plants reproduce sexually through the production of seeds or asexually through methods like vegetative propagation.
  • Example: In flowering plants, pollination occurs when pollen grains are transferred from the male reproductive organs (anthers) to the female reproductive organs (stigma), leading to fertilization and seed formation.
  1. Microbiology:
  • Microorganisms: Microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists, many of which play important roles in ecosystems, nutrient cycling, and human health.
  • Example: Bacteria in the soil help decompose organic matter, releasing nutrients for plant growth.
  • Role in ecosystems and human health: Microorganisms contribute to nutrient cycling, decomposition, and disease prevention or transmission.
  • Example: Some bacteria fix nitrogen, making it available to plants, while others cause diseases such as tuberculosis or influenza.
  1. Biotechnology:
  • Basics of biotechnology: Biotechnology involves the use of biological systems, organisms, or their derivatives to develop products or processes for specific purposes.
  • Example: Genetic engineering techniques are used to modify crop plants for improved yield, resistance to pests, or nutritional content.
  • Applications: Biotechnology has applications in agriculture, medicine, industry, and environmental conservation.
  • Example: In medicine, biotechnology is used to produce vaccines, insulin, and antibiotics.
  1. Biodiversity:
  • Importance: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. It is essential for

ecosystem stability, resilience, and ecosystem services.

  • Example: Biodiverse ecosystems are more resilient to environmental changes and provide services such as pollination, water purification, and climate regulation.
  • Threats: Biodiversity is threatened by habitat loss, pollution, invasive species, overexploitation, and climate change.
  • Example: Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest threatens biodiversity and contributes to habitat loss for countless plant and animal species.
  • Conservation efforts: Conservation aims to protect and preserve biodiversity through measures such as habitat conservation, captive breeding, and legislation.
  • Example: National parks and reserves are established to conserve biodiversity and provide habitats for endangered species. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
  • Structure: DNA is a double-stranded molecule that resembles a twisted ladder, known as the double helix. Each "rung" of the ladder consists of two nucleotide bases paired together: adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C). The backbone of the DNA molecule is made up of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules.
  • Function: DNA contains the genetic instructions necessary for the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. It serves as the blueprint for the synthesis of proteins and the regulation of cellular activities. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):
  • Structure: RNA is a single-stranded molecule that is typically shorter than DNA. It
  1. Molecular Evolution: Molecular evolution examines the molecular mechanisms underlying evolutionary processes, including DNA mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and speciation. These branches of molecular biology provide a deeper understanding of the structure, function, and regulation of DNA and RNA, as well as their roles in various biological processes.