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Biology 210 Midterm 1, Study notes of Ecology and Environment

University of the Fraser Valley Ecology and Environment

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BIO 210 Ecology notes:

Ch1. Intro. To Ecology; Web of Life:

Key Concepts:

1. Events in the natural world are interconnected

a. Explain how interactions between organisms and their environment can affect

other organisms and potentially lead to unexpected consequences

2. Ecology is a study of interactions between organism and environment

3. Ecologists evaluate competing hypotehses of natural systems with observations,

experiments, and models

Amphibians having increasing deformities worldwide

- Act as a biological indicator for environment problems

oWhy? Because their skin is permeable and pollutants can enter easily, causing

deformities

oTheir offspring are also susceptive because there is no protective shell around

the eggs

oSince they’re amphibians, they live on both land and water and are exposed to

the pollutants of both.

oIncrease of pesticides have also been a factor

oFertilizer runoff is a factor increases algae growth, which the parasite’s host

(the snails) eat.

The more the algae, the more snails, the more of the infectious bacteria.

Ecology: the scientific study of how organisms affect, and are affected by other organisms and

their environment

- Levels of organizations: individuals, population, communities, ecosystems

oIncludes Abiotic (physical) and biotic (living) components of systems

- Population: group of individuals of a species living in a particular area and interact with

each other

- community: association of populations of different species in the same area

- ecosystem: community of organisms and their physical environment

- landspace: areas with differences, include multiple ecosystems.

- Biosphere: all of the world’s ecosystems, includes all living organisms and their

environments.

Control experiment experimental groups are compared with control group lacks the factor

being tested

Some new diseases can be related to human action on the environment AIDS, Ebola, west

nile

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BIO 210 Ecology notes: Ch1. Intro. To Ecology; Web of Life: Key Concepts:

Events in the natural world are interconnected a. Explain how interactions between organisms and their environment can affect other organisms and potentially lead to unexpected consequences
Ecology is a study of interactions between organism and environment
Ecologists evaluate competing hypotehses of natural systems with observations, experiments, and models Amphibians having increasing deformities worldwide

Act as a biological indicator for environment problems o Why? Because their skin is permeable and pollutants can enter easily, causing deformities o Their offspring are also susceptive because there is no protective shell around the eggs o Since they’re amphibians, they live on both land and water and are exposed to the pollutants of both. o Increase of pesticides have also been a factor o Fertilizer runoff is a factor increases algae growth, which the parasite’s host (the snails) eat.  The more the algae, the more snails, the more of the infectious bacteria. Ecology: the scientific study of how organisms affect, and are affected by other organisms and their environment
Levels of organizations: individuals, population, communities, ecosystems o Includes Abiotic (physical) and biotic (living) components of systems
Population: group of individuals of a species living in a particular area and interact with each other
community: association of populations of different species in the same area
ecosystem: community of organisms and their physical environment
landspace: areas with differences, include multiple ecosystems.
Biosphere: all of the world’s ecosystems, includes all living organisms and their environments. Control experiment experimental groups are compared with control group lacks the factor being tested Some new diseases can be related to human action on the environment AIDS, Ebola, west nile

Ex. West nile incidence is influences by population size, land development, abundance of mosquitos, and climate

These factors can be affected by human action, either directly or indirectly One view that remains in ecology untouched events in nature are interconnected.
One change in part of an ecological system can alter parts of that system. Living systems chaning over time:
Evolution: o Change in genetic characteristics of a population over time o Descent with modification organisms gradually accumulate differences from ancestors Adaption: characteristic that increases survival or reproduction Natural selection: certain adaptations allow to organisms ot survive and reproduce at a higher rate than others
If heritable, the characterstic may increase in the population over time. Producers use energy to produce their own food autotrophs
Energy is eventually lost from the ecosystem as metabolic heaet Net primary productivity NPP Energy captured by producers, minus the amount lost as heat in cellular respiration Consumers get energy from eating other organisms or their remains heterotrophs Energy in an ecosystem cannot be recycled, only moves in one direction Nutrients are continuously recycled in an environment to the organisms nutrient cycle Experimentation:
Use observational studies
Controlled experiments
Experiments in field
Quantitative models Observational field study surveying ponds to relate frog deformities with prescence of host snail Controlled experiment test observations by exposing tadpoles to different levels of parasite Field experiment comparing three ponds and their frogs to three other ponds’ frogs that have no pesticides An experiment needs to be repeatable replication of experiments
Need to assign treatments randomly to decrease unmeasured variables
Determine results via statistical analysis Use the scientific method:

Make observations and ask questions,

conduction: KE transferred between molecules via direct contant sensible heat flux: E transfer from warm air that is above the cold air in the atmosphere, transferred via convection and conduction green house gases: absorb and reradiate the emitted infrared radiation by earth

H20, vapor
CO
Methane
Nitrous oxide
Can be produces via biological activity Warm air is less dense than cold air and will rise called uplift
Cool air holds less water vapour

Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, causing the rising air to expand and cool

Rising air expanding and cooling, water vapour condenses into clouds Condesnation warming, packet of air stays warmer than the surrounding atmosphere and enhances uplift Summer cumulus clouds form thunderstoms when theres heating at the earth’s surface and a progressively cooler atmosphere above it
Thunderclouds reach boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere when termperatures are warmer Tropical regions receive most radiation and most precipitation
Uplift of air results in low atmospheric pressure zone When air reaches the tropho-stratosphere boundary, it flows towards the poles Subsidence air descending once cool and forming high pressure zone form 30 N to 30 S  Where the majority of deserts are found Hadley cells large circulatory patterns from uplift in tropics Polar cells at the poles, cold air descends, create high pressure zone and no precipitation,
Creates polar desert Ferrell cells mid latitudes Circulation cells are formed in the major climatic zones, including tropical, temperate and polar

Air flows from areas of high to low pressure, forming consistent patterns called prevailing winds

Winds deflected due to rotation of earth Coriolis effect Water has higher heat capacity than land, absorbs and stores more energy without changing temperature Summer air over oceans is cooler and denser, causing higher pressures over the ocreans Winter air over continents is cooler and denser, causing higher pressures over the continents Ocean currents are driven by surface winds so their patterns are alike Vertical ocean circulation surface waters are warmer and less saline than deep waters, causing them to be immiscible Tropical currents reaching polar areas, water cools, ice forms, becomes more saline and dense, sinking
Downwelling: water masses move toward equator, carrying cold polar water. Upwelling—deep ocean water rising to surface
Prevailing winds blow parallel to coastline, and surface water flows away from the coast, cold ocean water will rise up to replace it.
Influences coastal climates
Brings nutrients from deep sediment to photic zone where light can penetrate, causing phytoplankton to grow o Allows for food for zooplankton o Most productive areas of open oceans “great ocean conveyer belt” interconnected system of ocean uccrents linking all oceans and transfers heat from tropics to the poles Air temperatures over land vary more with seasons rather than the ocean, causing impacts on distribution of organisms Temperature decreases with elevation above sea level lapse rate
Air pressure and density increase with elevation, fewere air moelcules to absorb infrared radiation
Wind speed also inceases, less friction with ground Pressure cells influence movement of moist air from oceans to continents and clouds Precipitiation associated with atmospheric circulation cells modified by mountain ranges and high and low pressure zones Maritime climate coastal areas, little daily and seasonal variation in temp, have high humidity Continental climates center of large continents; greater variation in daily and seasonal temps, especially in temperate zones

o Zone of maximum solar radiation and atmospheric uplift. o Moves from 23 N June 23 S in December CH. 3 Biomes: Biosphere zone of life on earth

Found between the lithosphere: earths surface crust to the upper mantle
And the trophosphere—the lowest layer of the atmosphere
Large scale terrestrial community, shaped by physical environment, catergorized by dominant plant growth forms and characterstics o Plants occupy sites for long time act as good indicators of climitatic conditions and disturbances
Plant form responds to selection pressures aridity, extreme temp.
Similar growth forms occur in similar climates on different continents, even if plants are not genetically related
Convergence: evolution of similar forms in response to similar selection pressures
Distribution of terrestrial biomes determined by earths climate zone
Major deserts found 30N-30S
Topography, ocean currents, and others determine biometric distribution Temperature direct physiological effects on plant growth form
Precipitation and temperature act together, influence water availability, and water loss by plants
Water availability and soil temp is determines by supply of nutrients In the soil Average annual temp and precipitation can predict biome distributions quite well.
Precipitation can predict biome distributions, o Season variation is important Human activity can influence distribution of biomes
Land use change: conversion of land for agriculture, logging and resource extraction o Potential and actual distributions of biomes markedly different Climate diagram: graph for average monthly temperature and precipitation at location, showing characteristic seasonal climate pattern
Precipitation curve falls below temperature curve, water availability limits plant growth,
1 C on the map is equal to 2 mm of precipitation
Precipitation curve under the temp curve water availability limits plant growth Tropical rainforest: 10 N and 10 S
Abundant rainfall, one or two peaks associated with ITCZ
High biomass—high diversity, about 50% of earth’s species
Broadleaved evergreen and dedicous trees Terrestrial biome—light is key factor, plants grow very tall above neighbours, or they have to adjust to low light level s

Emergents rise above the canopy
Lianas(woody vines + epiphytes, use trees for support
Understory trees grow in shade of canopy, and shrubs and forbs are on forest floor
Loss of forests means lower ability of terrestrial biosphere to take up carbon from atmosphere, greater emissions of green house gases from soil and decaying vegetation o Issues with deforestation Tropical seasonal forests and savannas:
Found north and south of wet tropics
Wet and dry seasons movement of ITCZ
Shorter trees, deciduous in the dry seasons, more grass and shrubs
Includes tropical dry forests, thorn woodlands, and tropical savannas
Fires establish savannas-> grasses mixed with shrubs and trees
Large herbivores also influence the balance of grass and trees o Zebras, elephants, antelopes
Human pop growth has influenced the biome, causing less than half of the seasonal tropical forests and savannas to remain o Large sections being converted into cropland and pasture Deserts: high pressure zones from 30S to 30 N
High temp, low precipitation, low moisture
Sparse vegetation, low animal population
Low water availability, o Constrains plant abundance and influences form  Desert plants have succulent stems that store water  Cacti – western hemisphere  Euphorbs – eastern hemisphere
Plants include drought-decidious shrubs, grasses, shortlived annual plants, active only after rain
Abundance of organisms can be low, but species diversity is high
Humans use for agriculture and livestock grazing
Agriculture depends on irrigation and causes soil salinization
Long term droughts and unsustainable grazing desertification o Loss of plant cover and soil erosion Temperate grasslands: 30-50 Latitude
Warm moist summers, cold dry winters
Grass is dominant, maintained by fires and large heribivores bison
High soil fertility
Central north America and Eurasia converted grasslands for agriculture o grazing by domestic animals, exceeds capacity for regrowth  causing grassland degradation and desertification o irrigation can cause salinization

Long, severe winters
Permafrost soil remains frozen year round o Prevents drainage and results in saturated soils
Trees are conifers pines, spruces, larches, and birches.
Cold, wet conditions boreal soils limit decomp. o Soils have high organic matter
Summer droughts forest fires created by lightening and burn trees and soil
Low lying areas extensive peat bogs form
Not as affected from human activities o Some regions affected by logging, oil and gas development o Increases as energy demands increase
Climate warming can increase soil decomp rates, releasing stored carbon, increase greenhouse gas concentrations Tundra:
Above 65 latitude, mostly in arctic
Cold temp, low precipitation
Short summer, long days,
Vegetation—sedges, forbs, grasses, low shrubs, lichens, moss
Widespread permafrost
Freezing and thawing of surface soil repeatedly causes sorting of soil according to texture
Polygons of soil form at surface o Upraised rims and depressed center
Pingos small hills, fromed by water freezing in subsurface permafrost, thrusting the soil above it upward
Sparse human settlements, o Largest pristine areas on earth o Human influence increases as. Exploration and development of energy resources increases
Significant climate change warming almost double the global average
Mountains temp and precipitation change with elevation zones similar to biomse o Temperate zone mountain biological communities occur at base, resemble those seen at latitutidinal gradient
Alpine zone tundra, but higher windspeed, more intense solar radiation, PP of O2and CO2 is lower
No biome analogs, o Daily temperature change is greater than seasonal variation Phenology:
Helps us understand nature,
Involves info about flowering, leafing, fruiting

o Brood migration/brooding o Insect pests infestation and plant diseases incidences o Flood and frosts o Climate change  Can indicate early spring

Start of spring indicator indicatory tracks the start of spring for each year, using estimations for heat accumulation to initiate growth leaf and flowering, in temp sensitive plants
Trend of earlier springs can have a implication of agriculture, natural resources, hazard management, and recreation o Leafing and flowering closely connected to climate indicator used to understand and anticipate climatic impacts on habitat and species  Used to optimize crop selection and yield  Assess vulnerability of ecosystesm to drought and wildfire
Spring first leaf and first bloom: synthesitc measure of early season events dependent on temperature
Robert Marsham father of phenology o Found 27 indication of early spring  Ex. The first flowering of snowdrops, hawthorns, turnips,  The first leafing of oak, beech, elm, sweet chestnut CH.4: coping with environmental change and temperature
Cryonics: preservation of body by freezing
Only a few vertabrates can handle freezing o Freezing causes tissue damage by causing ice crystals within the cell membrane and organelles
Organisms can either withstand environmental variation via tolerance or avoidance
Physiological ecology studying the interactions with organisms and the environment and how these interactions influence their survival and determine geographical ranges o Environmental influence on organisms ecological success  Availability of energy and resrouces  Extreme conditions can exceed tolerance limits
Actual geographic distribution of species is related to other factors
Plants don’t move indicators of physical environments o Ex. Aspen distribution limited by low temperature and drought
Climate envelope range of conditions within a species occurs predict response to climate change
Physiological processes have optimal conditions for functioning deviations from optimum reduce rate of process
Stress environmental change results in decreased rates of physiological processes o Lowers the potential for survival, growth or reproduction
Acclimatization adjusting to stress over behaviour or physiology o Short term, reversible process

o Latent heat transfer—water absorbs heart as it changes from liquid to gas state o Radiation—heat from the sun

Balance between energy input and output determines whether temperature will increase or decrease
Archaea, bacteria, fungi, protists, algae tolerate temp change with metabolic changes o Ex. Going dormant
Plants and animals have more influence over body temp
Terrestrial plants energy inputs include sunlight, infrared radiation from surrounding objects, conduction and convection if the ground or air is warmer than plant o Energy losses emission of infrared radiation, conduction and convection, and evapotranspiration
Plants adjust energy inputs and outputs
Transpiration rates controlled by specialized guard cells surrounding leaf opening stomates o Variation in degree of opening and number of stomates control the rate of transpiration and thus leaf temp
Soil water limited then transpiration cooling is not a good mechanism
Some plants can shed leaves during dry seasons o Other mechanism pubescence: hairs on leafs that reflect solar energy o Hairs also reduce conductive heat loss o Higher pubescence in desert species  Species in wet habitats are nonpubescent o Desert species reflect twice as much solar radiation  Facilitates ability to maintain leaf temp lower than air temp
Desert species with no hairs are maintained leaf temp by transpiration or shedding leaves o Desert species have smaller, more pubescent leaves in summer than winter  Representing acclimization in hot summer temperatures
Drier environment plants have more pubescence and absorb less solar radiation than those in moist environments
Air temp lower than the leaf temp heat is lost by convection o Related to the speed of air moving across a leaf surface
Boundary layer zone of turbulence flow due to friction, next to leaf surface o Thickness is related to leaf size and surface roughness,  Small leaves have thin boundary layers, lose more heat than large or rough leaves
Cold, windy environment convective heat loss is problem for plant o Alpine plants hug the ground to avoid high wind velocities o Some have layer of insulating hair to lower convective heat loss
Animals can generate heat internally Hmet Metabolic heat generation
Evaporative cooling in animals sweating, panting, licking body
Generating heat interally is advantageous

o Animals can maintain constant internal temp near the optimum for metabolic funcitons under a large range of external temperatures  Therefore the animals can extend their geographic range  Ex. Mammals, bees, some fish, plants  Skunk cabbage warms flowers using metabolically generated heat in early spring

Ectotherm regulate body temp through energy exchange with external environment o Have a greater tolerance for variation in body temp than endotherms
Endotherms rely primarily on internal heat generation most birds and mammals
Heat exchange with environment depends on surface area to volume ratio of body o Smaller surface area to volume ratio decreases the animals ability to lose or gain heat o As body size increases, surface area to volume ration decreases,  Therefore, large ectotherms are improbable  Small aquatic ectotherms remain the same temp as water  Some large ectotherms maintain higher body temp  Tuna use muscle activity and heat exchange between blood vessels to maintain higher body temp than water  Terrestrial ectotherms can move around to adjust temperature o Insects and reptiles bask in sun to warm up after cold night increases danger to predators, but this camoflages and can change coloration to match backgrounds.
Ectotherms in hot environments gain too much heat from environment and body temp can reach lethal levels
Climate change limits foraging periods of several species Mexican lizards, abundance decreased significantly
Ectotherms in temperate or polar regions must avoid or tolerate freezing o Avoidance: seasonal migration to lower latitudes or microhabitats above freezing  Burrowing in the soil o Tolerance: minimize damage associated with ice formation in cells  Insects have high levels of glycerol lowers freezing point of body fluids
Cost of being endothermic high demand for energy (food) for metabolic heat production o Metabolic rates are function of external temp and rate of heat loss  Rate of heat lossrelated to body size and surface area to volume ratio  Small endotherms have higher metabolic rates and need more energy than large endotherms
Thermoneutral zone: range of environmental temp over which constant basal metabolic rate can be maintained
Lower critical temperature: when heat loss is greater than metabolic production o Body temp drops and metabolic heat generation increases
Mammals in artic lower temp than mammals in tropics
Rate of metabolic activity increases more rapidly below the lower critical temp in tropical mammals compared to artic mammals

o Predators capture and consume live prey animals o Holoparasites energy from other plants  Dodder agricultural pest that can significantly reduce biomass of host plant o Hemiparasite mistletoe: photosynthetic, gets nutrients, water, some energy from host plant

Some animals acquire or consume photosynthetic organisms o Live in close relationship with them symbiosis o Sea slugs have functional chloroplasts taken up from algae that slug eats
Most autotrophs photosynthesis—sunlight provides the energy to take up CO2 and synthesize organic compounds
Chemosynthesis—energy comes from inorganic compounds o In both energy is stored in carbon-carbon bonds of organic compounds  Ecologists use carbon as measure of energy
Earliest autotrophs were probably chemosynthetic bacteria or archaea o Atmosphere low in O2 but rich in Hydrogen, methane and CO o Many still use energy from inorganic compounds
Chemosynthesis organisms get electrons by oxidizing an inorganic substrate o Electrons are used to generate high energy ATP and NADPH o Energy in ATP and NADPH then used to take up CO2 and make carbohydrates  Fixation
Common biochemical pathway to fix CO2 calvin cycle, catalyzed by several enzymes o Occurs in chemosynthetic and photosynthetic organisms
Chemosynthesizers include nitrifying bacteria o Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter o Convert ammonium NH4 into nitrite NO  Oxidize it into nitrate NO o Conversions are important in nitrogen cycle and plant nutrition
Sulfur bacteria volcanic deposits, sulfur hot springs, acid mine wastes o Use H2S and HS as energy source  Produce elemental S  Used as an electron source SO4 (sulfate)
Photosynthesis produces most of biologically available energy on earth o Responsible for largest movements of CO2 between earth and atmosphere o Photosynthetic organisms archaea, bacteria, protists, and algae and plants o Two major steps: o 1. Light driven reactions light energy is harvested and used to split water  Provides electrons to make ATP and NADPH
o 2. Carbon reactions CO2 is fixed in calvin cycle carbohydrates are synthesized
Light driven reactions: o Light harvesting chlorophyll absorb red and blue light  Reflects green light

 Pigments like cartenoids help harvest light  Pigments embedded in cell membranes or in chloroplast membranes  50-300 pigment molecules groups like antennas o Pigments absorb energy has units of light photons  Energy is used to split water and get electrons  Electrons are passed to molecules in the membranes  Used to synthesize ATP and NADPH o Splitting of water generates O  Photosynthesis evolution led to modern atmosphere with high O2 levels  Led to the development of the ozone layers  Evolution of aerobic respiration O2 is an electron acceptor o Facilitating changes for life on earth

Carbon reactions: o Key enzyme in carbon cycle rubisco  Catalyzes the uptake of CO2 and synthesis of 3 Carbon compound  Most abundant enzyme on earth o 6 CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 ---- Net reaction of photosynthesis  Photosynthetic rate determines supply of energy and substrates for biosynthesis  Influences growth and reproduction  Environmental controls on photosynthetic rate important
Light response curves relationship between light levels and photosynthetic rate
Light compensation rate where CO2 uptake is balanced by CO2 loss during respiration
Saturation point where photosynthesis no longer increases as light increases o Plants acclimatize to changing light intensities with shifts in light saturation point  Can involve morphological changes thicker leaves and more chloroplasts  Density of light harvesting pigements and enzyme conc can be altered
Photosynthetic bacteria can sometimes grow in low light levels o Chlorophyll that absorbs light near the infrared region o Allows cyanobacteria to grow at depth that is underneath other photosynthetic cells that absorb red nad blue light
Low water availability plants close stomates and restrict CO2 uptake o Trade off water conservation vs energy gain through Photosynth and evaporative cooling
Closing stomates increase chance of light damage o If calvin cycle not operating, energy accumulates in light harvesting arrays  Damage membranes  Various mehchnaisms to dissipate this energy as heat carotenoid pigments
Temperature influences photosynthesis o Affects rate of chemical reactions o Affects structure of membranes and enzymes

 At night CAM plants take up CO2 using PEPcase make 4 C organic acid store in vacuoles o Day time molecule broken down to supply CO2 for calvin cycle; high CO2 conc reduce photorespiration o Plants are often succulent, thick, fleshy leaves or stems  Common in arid and saline environments o Some occur in humid tropics most epiphytes that grow on tree brances, less access to water o Some aquatic plants such as quillwort o Rate of CO2 diffusion into water is slow  CAM may facilitate CO2 uptake at low CO2 conc

Some plants switch between C3 and CAM o When water abundant use C3, allows more carbon gain o If arid or saline switch to CAM, irreversible in some species, not in others
Ratio of 13C/12C in plant can indicate which pathway it uses o Heavier isotopes are discriminated against  PEPcase discriminates less than rubisco  C4 and CAM plants have more 13C than C3 plants
Hetetrophs consume energy rich organic compounds food o Converts them into usable chemical energy ATP o Energy gain depends on chemistry of food and how much effort is needed o Soil organisms feed on detritus invest little energy to find food, but food has low energy content o Constituents of food have varying energy content
Fiber compounds like cellulose, most heterotrophs cant break it down
Most energy is found as carbs, proteins, and fats o Amino acids provide nitrogen
Secondary compounds not good energy source, can be toxic
Animal cells, more E rich than plant, fungal or bacteria have more fiber
Herbivores eat more food to get same benefit as carnivores spend more energy finding food
Archaea, bacteria, and fungi excrete enzymes into environment to break down organic matter o Digest food outside bodies o Adapted variety of food srouces, wide variety of enzymes to break them down  Exploited for bioremediation  Fuels, pesticides, sewage, cleaned up by microorganisms that can break down the chemicals  Deep water horizon oil spill lessened by marine microorganisms that can use oil as a fuel source
Evolution of mobility associated with need to find food and avoid being eaten o Animals have diversity in feeding adaptations reflects diversity of food they eat
All insects have basic set of mouthparts, all the same

o Appendages to capture, handle and consume food o Variation in mouthparts reflect feeding specializations

Bird variation in mouthpart bills o Reflect adaptations to optimize food gathering and minimize competition among groups of birds o Birds with bills best suited to dominant cone type higher survival rates
Heterotrophs transform food into simpler molecules o Digest breaks down proteins, carbs, and fats into amino acids, monosaccharides, and fatty acids o Digestion and absorption of food important steps of energy acquisition
Small protozoans ingest food particles digested in special organelles
Multicellular animals special tissues for absorption, digestion, transport, and excretion o Increasing the efficiency of energy assimilation o Animal diet influences digestive adaptations
Herbivores consume plants with a lot of fiber o Longer digestive tracts, increasing food processing time and surface area for absorption  Reingest their feces coprophagy to enchance digestion o Some have bacterial symbionts that enhance digestion  Ruminants special stomach compartment rumen, large population of bacteria to breakdown cellulose  Also exhibit rumination cud chewing, regurgitation of material from forestomach for additional chewing  Allows to eat food quicly and reduce exposure to predators, then more thoroughly chew and digest food later
Omnivores adjust digestive morphologies and produce different digestive enzymes
CH. 6 Evolution and ecology
Trophy hunting  remove largest and strongest males, the ones that would produce healthy offspring o Cuasing average size of males and their horns to decrease
Elephants being poached for ivory—> proportion of population that have tusks are decreasing
Unintended effects of human harvesting on animals—populations change and evolve over time
Humans cause pollution, change land use, climate change
Genes are made of DNA encode protein stuructre, can have two or more forms called alleles o Genotype the genetic makeup of an individual for a trait
Evolution changes allele frequencies or proportions in a population over time
Evolution descent with modification o New species have many same characteristics of ancestors and resemble them

Biology 210 Midterm 1, Study notes of Ecology and Environment

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