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BIO 235 Midterm 1 and 2 study notes, Study notes of Biology

Athabasca UniversityBiology

Midterms 1 and 2 from 2025 year, version A

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Chapters 1-10 BIO235 Midterm 1 Practice Questions
Chapter 1: Introduction into the Human Body
Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization
Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization
Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization
Chapter 5: The Integumentary System
Chapter 6: The Skeletal System- Bone Tissue
Chapter 7: The Skeletal System- Axial Skeleton
Chapter 8: The Skeletal System- Appendicular Skeleton
Chapter 9: Joints
Chapter 10: Muscular Tissue
Chapter 1: Introduction into the Human Body
1. Define Anatomy: Is the science of body structures and the relationships among them
2. Define Physiology: If the science of body functions, how the body parts work
3. Describe the 6 levels of structural organization: Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organism
4. What are the 11 systems within the human body? Integumentary, muscular, endocrine, lymphatic, digestive, urinary, respiratory, nervous,
cardiovascular, skeletal, and reproductive
5. Define the basic life processes: Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction
6. Define homeostasis: The maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body’s internal environment
7. Components of a feedback system: Or feedback loop is a cycle of events in which the status of the body condition is monitored,
evaluated, changed, re-monitored, reevaluated, and so on. Each monitored value is called the “Controlled condition”. Any disruption that
changes a controlled condition is called a “Stimulus”. This includes a receptor, control centre, and effector. Receptors monitor changes in a
controlled condition and sends output to a control centre. A control centre has a set point, and evaluates the input it receives from the
receptors, and generates output commands. Effectors receive output from the control centre and produce responses that change the
controlled condition.
8. Negative vs positive feedback systems: Negative Feedback Loops reverse change in a controlled condition. Positive Feedback Loops tend
to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s-controlled conditions
9. How homeostatic imbalances are related to disorders: Include the environment, behaviours, genetic makeup, air you breathe, food you
eat, and thoughts you think.
10. Blood plasma is: ECF within the blood vessels
11. Lymph is: ECF within the lymphatic system
12. Cerebrospinal fluid is: ECF in and around the brain and spinal cord
13. Interstitial fluid is: ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues
14. Intracellular fluid: The fluid within the cell
15. Aqueous humor/Vitreous body is: ECF of the eyes
16. Synovial Fluid: ECF in the joints
17. The control centre in a feedback system is also known as the ______ pathway. Efferent (because the information flows away from the
control center)
18. The 2 regulating systems that are responsible for bringing the internal environment into balance is the: Nervous system and the
Endocrine system
19. The receptor in a feedback system is also known as the __________ pathway. Afferent (because the information flows towards the control
center)
20. Extracellular fluid: The fluid outside of body cells
21.
Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization
1. What is a microbe? Small organism (<1mm), usually not visible to unaided eye
2. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are _______, whereas viruses are________. Cellular; acellular
3. Prokaryotes consist of _______ and _________. Bacteria and archaea
4. Eukaryotes consist of ____, ____, ____, and _____. Fungi, algae, protozoa, and helminths
5. Bacteria usually range between _____um and _____mm in size with an average of _____um: 0.2um and 1mm; 1-4um
6. Bacteria cell wall is made of: Peptidoglycan
7. Are bacteria unicellular or multicellular? Unicellular
8. Archaea have a ______, not _______. Cell wall, peptidoglycan
9. Major groups of archaea consist of: Methanogens, halophiles, and thermophiles
10. Fungi consists of: Yeasts and Moulds
11. Fungi have a tough cell wall made of: Chitin
12. Fungi are motile or non-motile: non-motile
13. Protozoa are ________ cellular eukaryotes. Unicellular
14. Protozoa don’t have a _________, but rather a protein cover made of _________. Cell wall, Pellicle
15. Protozoa are motile or non-motile: Motile (Pseudopods, cilia, flagella)
16. Protozoa absorb organic molecules in a process called: Phagocytosis
17. Algae are _______ cellular eukaryotes. Unicellular
18. Algae may be enclosed by: Cell walls and cellulose
19. A _______ is required for viruses. Host
20. Viruses have a protein coat made of: Capsid
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Chapters 1-10 BIO235 Midterm 1 Practice Questions Chapter 1: Introduction into the Human Body Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization Chapter 5: The Integumentary System Chapter 6: The Skeletal System- Bone Tissue Chapter 7: The Skeletal System- Axial Skeleton Chapter 8: The Skeletal System- Appendicular Skeleton Chapter 9: Joints Chapter 10: Muscular Tissue Chapter 1: Introduction into the Human Body

  1. Define Anatomy: Is the science of body structures and the relationships among them
  2. Define Physiology: If the science of body functions, how the body parts work
  3. Describe the 6 levels of structural organization: Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organism
  4. What are the 11 systems within the human body? Integumentary, muscular, endocrine, lymphatic, digestive, urinary, respiratory, nervous, cardiovascular, skeletal, and reproductive
  5. Define the basic life processes: Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction
  6. Define homeostasis: The maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body’s internal environment
  7. Components of a feedback system: Or feedback loop is a cycle of events in which the status of the body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, reevaluated, and so on. Each monitored value is called the “Controlled condition”. Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a “Stimulus”. This includes a receptor, control centre, and effector. Receptors monitor changes in a controlled condition and sends output to a control centre. A control centre has a set point, and evaluates the input it receives from the receptors, and generates output commands. Effectors receive output from the control centre and produce responses that change the controlled condition.
  8. Negative vs positive feedback systems: Negative Feedback Loops reverse change in a controlled condition. Positive Feedback Loops tend to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s-controlled conditions
  9. How homeostatic imbalances are related to disorders: Include the environment, behaviours, genetic makeup, air you breathe, food you eat, and thoughts you think.
  10. Blood plasma is: ECF within the blood vessels
  11. Lymph is: ECF within the lymphatic system
  12. Cerebrospinal fluid is: ECF in and around the brain and spinal cord
  13. Interstitial fluid is: ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues
  14. Intracellular fluid: The fluid within the cell
  15. Aqueous humor/Vitreous body is: ECF of the eyes
  16. Synovial Fluid: ECF in the joints
  17. The control centre in a feedback system is also known as the ______ pathway. Efferent (because the information flows away from the control center)
  18. The 2 regulating systems that are responsible for bringing the internal environment into balance is the: Nervous system and the Endocrine system
  19. The receptor in a feedback system is also known as the __________ pathway. Afferent (because the information flows towards the control center)
  20. Extracellular fluid: The fluid outside of body cells

Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization

  1. What is a microbe? Small organism (<1mm), usually not visible to unaided eye
  2. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are _______, whereas viruses are________. Cellular; acellular
  3. Prokaryotes consist of _______ and _________. Bacteria and archaea
  4. Eukaryotes consist of ____, ____, ____, and _____. Fungi, algae, protozoa, and helminths
  5. Bacteria usually range between _____um and _____mm in size with an average of _____um: 0.2um and 1mm; 1-4um
  6. Bacteria cell wall is made of: Peptidoglycan
  7. Are bacteria unicellular or multicellular? Unicellular
  8. Archaea have a ______, not _______. Cell wall, peptidoglycan
  9. Major groups of archaea consist of: Methanogens, halophiles, and thermophiles
  10. Fungi consists of: Yeasts and Moulds
  11. Fungi have a tough cell wall made of: Chitin
  12. Fungi are motile or non-motile: non-motile
  13. Protozoa are ________ cellular eukaryotes. Unicellular
  14. Protozoa don’t have a _________, but rather a protein cover made of _________. Cell wall, Pellicle
  15. Protozoa are motile or non-motile: Motile (Pseudopods, cilia, flagella)
  16. Protozoa absorb organic molecules in a process called: Phagocytosis
  17. Algae are _______ cellular eukaryotes. Unicellular
  18. Algae may be enclosed by: Cell walls and cellulose
  19. A _______ is required for viruses. Host
  20. Viruses have a protein coat made of: Capsid
  1. Microbes in our lives can be _______ (disease causing) or ______ (beneficial). Pathogenic, mutualistic
  2. _________ is the process of detoxification: Bioremediation
  3. When humans manipulate the genes of microorganisms, it is called: Genetic engineering
  4. Prokaryotes do not have a _______, but eukaryotes do. Nucleus
  5. _______ have complex organelles but ______ do not. Eukaryotes; prokaryotes
  6. The DNA in prokaryotes is ________ but in eukaryotes it is: Free floating; encased
  7. Viruses lack: Cell Structure
  8. The idea of immediate creation is termed as: Spontaneous generation
  9. Inorganic Compounds are: Lacking carbon and are structurally simple
  10. Organic Compounds are: Containing carbon, usually contain hydrogen, and always have covalent bonds
  11. Water is: The most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems
  12. What property about water makes it an excellent solvent? The polarity gives water molecules cohesion and allows water to resist temp changes
  13. In a _______, the substance called the ______ dissolves another substance called the ________. Solution, solvent, solute
  14. Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic: Hydrophilic means solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds dissolve easily in water [water LOVING]; Hydrophobic means molecules that contain mainly non-polar covalent bonds, and are not very water-soluble [water HATING]
  15. Hydrolysis refers to: The breakdown of larger nutrient molecules into smaller molecules by the addition of water molecule, this enables dietary nutrients to be absorbed into the body
  16. A Dehydration synthesis reaction is: When 2 smaller molecules join to form a larger molecule. A water molecule is one of the products that are formed
  17. What is a compound? A substance that contains atoms of 2+ different elements. Most atoms in the body are joined into compounds
  18. What are the 2 thermal properties of water? Water can absorb and release large amounts of heat with minimal changes in its own temps- Water is said to have high heat capacity. Water also requires a large amount of heat to change from a liquid to gas, so its heat of vaporization is high
  19. What is a mixture? A combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bound by chemical bonds [ common liquid mixtures are solutions, colloids, & suspensions]
  20. What is a colloid? The solute particles in a colloid are large enough to scatter light [just as water droplets in fog scatter light from a car’s headlight beams], Colloids usually appear translucent or opaque
  21. Suspension: The solutes in both solutions and colloids do not settle out and accumulate on the bottom of the container. In this, by contrast, the suspended material may mix with a liquid for some time, but eventually will settle out
  22. Concentration: This can be expressed in several ways, such as percentage [mass/vol], or molarity [moles/L]
  23. Dissociate: When inorganic acids, bases, or salts dissolve in water, or they separate into ions and become surrounded by water molecules
  24. Acids vs bases: Acid- A substance that dissociates into 1+ hydrogen ions and 1+ anions [i.e. HCl breaks into H+ and Cl-. Base- Removes hydrogen ions (H+), many bases dissociate into 1+ hydroxide ions (OH-) and 1+ cations [i.e. KOH breaks into K+ and OH-]
  25. Because H+ is a single proton with 1 positive charge, an acid is also referred to as a __________. Proton donor

Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization

  1. These types of cell junctions anchor adjacent cells together and resist their separation during contractile activities. Adherens junctions and desmosomes
  2. Immature, undifferentiated cells that can divide to replace lost or damaged cells are called: Stem cells In the diagram, which cell junction is a desmosome? __________________________
  3. In the diagram, which cellular junction is a tight junction? __________________________
  4. In the diagram, where is the apical surface of the epithelial cell? ________________________
  5. The higher the temperature, the _________ the diffusion rate: Faster
  6. How does the mass of the diffusing substance influence the diffusion rate? The larger the mass of the diffusing particle, the slower its diffusion
  7. How does surface area influence diffusion rate? The more surface area, the faster the diffusion occurs
  8. How does diffusion distance influence diffusion? The larger the distance = the longer it occurs
  9. What is simple diffusion? PASSIVE movement down a concentration gradient; through a lipid bilayer, WITHOUT help from membrane transporter proteins
  10. What is facilitated diffusion? PASSIVE movement down a concentration gradient; through lipid bilayer WITH help from transmembrane proteins that function as channels or carriers
  11. What is channel-mediated facilitated diffusion? Solute moves down a concentration gradient; across lipid bilayer; ions can diffuse across the membrane only at certain sites
  12. In typical plasma membranes, the most numerous ion channels are selective for ______ or ______; fewer channels are available for ______ or _______. K+ & Cl- ; Na+ & Ca2+
  13. What is a carrier=mediated facilitated diffusion? A Carrier (or transporter) ACTIVELY moves a solute down a concentration gradient across lipid bilayer WITH help from transporter
  14. Define Energy: The capacity to do work, each chemical reaction involves energy changes
  15. Define Activation Energy: The collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of the reactants
  16. What factors influence the chance of a collision between molecules to occur and cause a chemical reaction? Concentration [high volume of particles, the higher chance they collide] and temperature [particles move rapidly at higher temps, therefore, a higher chance of collision]
  17. How to calculate mass #: The sum of an atom’s protons and neutrons. i.e. Sodium has 11 protons, and 12 neutrons, its mass # is 23
  18. What is a catalyst? Speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur
  19. Exergonic Reactions: Release more energy than they absorb
  20. Endergonic Reactions: Absorb more energy than they release
  1. The thin extracellular layer, consisting of the basal and reticular lamina, that anchors epithelial cells to underlying connective tissue is called the: Basement Membrane
  2. Epithelial Tissue: Is used as a covering of body surfaces, is used as a lining of body cavities and hollow organs, is used to form glands, usually has a free surface that interacts with external environments, or all of the above
  3. Which type of epithelial tissue is found lining the heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels? Simple squamous epithelium
  4. Which type of epithelial tissue forms the most superficial layer of the skin? Stratified squamous epithelium
  5. Which type of epithelial tissue lines the ducts of sweat glands and esophageal glands? Stratified cuboidal epithelium
  6. Which type of tissue lines the fallopian tubes, uterus, and some bronchioles of the respiratory tract? Simple columnar epithelium
  7. In which of the following locations would you most likely find transitional epithelial cells? Lining of the urinary bladder
  8. The extracellular matrix of connective tissue consists of: Protein fibers and ground substance
  9. Which of the following is NOT a connective tissue? Epidermis
  10. Which component of connective tissue is found between the cells and fibers and functions to support and bind cells in the tissues together? Ground substance
  11. Which of the following is a polysaccharide commonly found in the ground substance of connective tissue? Hyaluronic acid
  12. Which of the following types of fibers are commonly found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue? Elastic, reticular, collagen, or all of the above
  13. Reticular fibers in soft organs like the spleen and liver form a supporting framework called the: Stroma
  14. Which of the following are classified as loose connective tissue? Areolar connective tissue
  15. Which of the following is a location where adipose tissue is commonly found? Subcutaneous layer deep of the skin
  16. The main function of dense regular connective tissue is: Providing strong attachment between structures like muscles and bones
  17. The pubic symphysis and intervertebral discs are composed of which type of connective tissues? Fibrocartilage
  18. Name and briefly describe the two types of growth seen in cartilage: Classified as interstitial and appositional. In interstitial, the cartilage rapidly grows in size due to division of existing chondrocytes and continuous deposition of increased amounts of matrix by the chondrocytes. In appositional, activity of the cells in the inner chondrogenic layer of the perichondrium leads to growth. Deep layers divide and cells mature resulting in the matrix accumulating beneath the perichondrium on the outer surface of the cartilage causing it to grow in width
  19. The extracellular matrix of blood tissue consists of: Plasma
  20. Which of the following types of membranes found in the human body does NOT contain epithelial tissue? Synovial membrane
  21. In the diagram, which of the indicated structures is composed of basal lamina and reticular lamina? Basement Membrane
  22. Which of the light micrographs shows stratified cuboidal epithelium? __________
  23. Which light micrograph shows the type of cartilage that is most abundant in the body? Hyaline Cartilage
  24. Which light micrograph shows areolar connective tissue? __________________
  25. Which light micrograph shows reticular connective tissue? ___________________
  26. What is the functional role of epithelial tissue? Secretion (mucus, hormones, enzymes), absorption (nutrients in GI tract), & excretion (various substances in urinary tract)
  27. Exchange of substances between an epithelial tissue and connective tissue occurs through ________. Diffusion
  28. A _________ allows epithelial tissue to constantly renew and repair itself. High rate of cell division
  29. What are the 2 types of epithelial tissue? Surface [forms outer covering of skin and some internal organs, inner lining of BV, ducts, body cavities, interior respiratory, digestive, urinary, & reproductive] and glandular epithelium [secreting portion of thyroid, adrenal, sweat & digestive glands]
  30. What are the types of processes that form attachment points for connective tissue? Crest [prominent ridge or elongated projection], epicondyle [roughened projection about the condyle], line [long, narrow ridge or border], spinous process [sharp, slender projection], trochanter [very large projection], tubercle [variably sized rounded projection], & tuberosity [variably sized projection that has a rough, bumpy surface]
  31. What is the main function of glandular epithelium? Secretion
  32. What is a gland? Epithelium that secretes substances into ducts (tubes), onto the surface of the body, or into the blood if tubes are absent. All glands are either endocrine or exocrine
  33. Endocrine Glands: aka Hormones, these secretions have far-reaching effects because they distribute throughout the body via the bloodstream
  34. Exocrine Glands: These secretions have limited effects as some of them would be harmful if they entered the blood, they are classified into unicellular or multicellular
  35. Unicellular vs. Multicellular Exocrine Glands: Unicellular- Single celled glands (i.e. goblet cells, secrete mucus directly onto the apical surface of an epithelial lining); Multicellular- Contain many cells (i.e. sudoriferous [sweat], sebaceous [oil], mammary [milk], and salivatory)
  36. What does connective tissue do? Protects and supports the body and its organs. Various types bind together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organisms. Consists of extracellular matrix and cells
  1. How are multicellular glands categorized? Branched or unbranched, and the shape of the secretory portions of the gland (simple tubular [straight & attached to a single unbranched duct], simple branched tubular [branched & attaches to a single unbranched duct], simple coiled tubular, simple acinar [rounded, attaches to a single unbranched duct], simple branched acinar [Rounded and branched, attaches to unbranched duct], compound tubular [tubular, attaches to branched duct], compound acinar [rounded, attaches to branched duct], compound tubuloacinar [Both tubular and rounded, attaches to branched duct]
  2. What is the functional classification of exocrine glands? Is based on whether a secretion is a product of a cell or consists of an entire/partial glandular cell. The 3 types are merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine
  3. Merocrine vs. apocrine vs. holocrine: Merocrine- Released from cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis, more glands are merocrine. Apocrine- Portions of the cell that are pinched off from the rest of the cell via exocytosis. Holocrine- Secretions made when secretory cells mature and rupture.
  4. Extracellular Matrix: Material located between cells. This consists of protein fibers and ground substance. The structure of this determines many of the tissue’s qualities
  5. Fibroblasts: A large, flat cell that moves through connective tissue and secrets fibers and ground substance
  6. Macrophages: Develop from monocytes and destroy bacteria and cell debris by phagocytosis
  7. Plasma cells: aka plasmacytes, develop from B lymphocytes, secrete antibodies that attack and neutralize foreign substances
  8. Mast cells: aka mastocytes, abundant along BVs, produce histamine, while dilates small BVs during inflammation and kills bacteria
  9. Adipocytes: Fat cells that store fats, found below the skin and around the organs
  10. Leukocytes: WBCs, 2 types: eosinophils [migrate to sites of parasitic infections and allergy responses] and neutrophils [migrate to sites of infection that destroy microbes by phagocytosis]
  11. Hyaluronic Acid: Viscous, slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of eyeballs

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

  1. Which of the following types of glands are categorized by whether their ducts are branched or unbranched? Multicellular exocrine glands
  2. Which type of multicellular exocrine gland has a branched rounded secretory part attached to a single unbranched duct and is found mainly in sebaceous glands? Simple branched acinar glands
  3. Functional classification of exocrine glands is based on: How the gland releases is secretory products
  4. Which type of exocrine glands accumulates its secretory product in the cytosol of its cells until the cell ruptures and becomes part of the secretory product? Holocrine
  5. Which type of membrane lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior and the organs contained in that body cavity? Serous membrane
  6. What are lamellated corpuscles? Pacinian corpuscles, nerve endings that are sensitive to pressure; SC and sometimes dermis have these
  7. Name the layers of the epidermis in order from deep to superficial: Stratum Basale [contains melanocytes], Stratum Spinosum [contains intradermal macrophages, keratinocytes & tactile epithelial cells], Stratum Granulosum [contains lamellar granules], Stratum Lucidum [thin white layer], and Stratum Corneum [contains dead keratinocytes]
  8. What is a callus? Abnormal thickening of the stratum corneum
  9. What is the epidermal growth factor? Hormone-like proteins that play a role in regulating growth of the epidermis
  10. How does the subcutaneous layer of the skin aid the nervous system? The hypodermis separates the muscles from the skin, composed of areolar connective tissue/adipose tissue. Provides a pathway for nerves, BV, and lymphatic vessels to enter/exit muscles. Stores most of the body’s triglycerides, serves as insulation to reduce heat loss, and protects muscles from physical trauma
  11. Dermis is: Deeper, thicker connective tissue, is vascular, composed of dense irregular connective tissue, contains collagen & elastic fibers, ability to stretch and recoil, much thicker than epidermis
  12. Epidermis is: The superficial, thinner portion, which is made of epithelial tissue, is avascular, composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
  13. The 2 dermal regions are: Papillary [superficial portion, areolar connective tissue with thin collagen, contains dermal ridges with blood capillaries, corpuscles of touch, & free nerve endings] and reticular [deeper portion of dermis, dense irregular connective tissue with bundles of thick collagen and elastic fibers. Spaces between contain some adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous & sudoriferous glands] regions
  14. Dermal Papillae: Small, nipple-shaped structures projecting the undersurface of the epidermis and aid in increasing surface area of the papillary region
  15. What are capillary loops? Blood Vessels, all dermal papillae have them
  16. What are corpuscles of touch? Meissner corpuscles are nerve endings that are sensitive to touch, some dermal papillae have them
  17. What are free nerve endings? Dendrites that lack apparent structure, initiate signals that give rise to some sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling, itching- some dermal papillae have them
  18. What are lamellar granules? Release hydrophobic sealant that decreases water entry and loss, + inhibits the entry of foreign materials
  19. What is hydroxyapatite? Crystals formed when calcium phosphate combines with calcium hydroxide
  20. What is calcification? When mineral salts are deposited into the framework formed by collagen fibers of the extracellular matrix. They crystallize then the tissue hardens
  21. Explain skin colour: Melanin, hemoglobin and carotene are the 3 pigments that impact colours of skin. Vary from pale-yellow to reddish- brown/black. The # of melanocytes (melanin producing cells), is the same in all people, so colour is due to the amount of pigment the melanocytes produce and transfer to keratinocytes
  22. Hair on the skin: Depends on genetic and hormonal influences thickness, pattern, distribution. Guards scalp from injury from UV light, heat loss, eyebrows/eye lashes protect eyes, touch receptors [hair root plexus] is present
  23. What are the 3 layers of the hair and shaft root consisting of? Medulla [inner layer, may lack in thinner hair, composed of 2-3 rows of irregular shaped cells that contain large amounts of pigment in dark hair and small amount in grey hair], cortex [middle layer, forms the majority of the shaft, made of elongated cells], and cuticle of the hair [outer layer, single layer of thin, flat cells, heavily keratinized, arranged like shingles, free edges pointing towards the end of the hair]
  24. Melanocytes: 8% of epidermal cells, develops from the ectoderm of developing embryo and produce melanin. Form protective layer over the nucleus. This shields the DNA from damage of UV light
  1. Nutrient Arteries: Located near the center of the diaphysis, passes through a hole in the compact bone called the nutrient foramen. Once inside the medullary cavity, it divides into proximal and distal branches, which course its way to the ends of the bone. These branches supply both inner compact bone and spongy bone/red bone marrow as far as the epiphyseal plates with blood

Chapter 7: The Skeletal System- Axial Skeleton

  1. What is included in the Axial skeleton? 80 bones; skull bones, auditory ossicles [not a part of either skeleton, but placed here for convenience], hyoid bone, ribs, sternum, and bones of the vertebral column
  2. What are the 2 major types of surface markings? Depressions/openings [Allow passage of soft tissues (BV, nerves, ligaments, tendons) & formation of joints] and processes
  3. Types of Depressions and Openings: Fissure, foramen, fossa, sulcus, meatus
  4. What is a Fissure? Narrow slit b/w adjacent parts of a bone where BV and nerves pass
  5. What is a Foramen? Opening which BV, nerves, or ligaments pass
  6. What is a Fossa? Shallow depression in a bone
  7. What is a Sulcus? Furrow along bone surface, or groove that accommodates BV, nerves, or tendons
  8. What is a Meatus? A tube-like opening
  9. The pelvic/hip girdle: Consists of 2 bones called coxal-pelvic bones-os coxa; connects the bones of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton
  10. The pubic symphysis is: A joint where the hip bones unite anteriorly
  11. What is included in the bony pelvis? A deep basin-like structure formed by the complete ring composed of the hip bones, pubic symphysis, sacrum, coccyx; provides strong & stable support for the vertebral column and pelvic/lower abdominal organs
  12. The hip bones contain: The Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis. Ilium is the largest superior portion, Ischium is the exterior inferior portion, and the pubis is the interior inferior portion
  13. What is the Ischial Tuberosity? Within the Ischium, it is the fossa on the anterior view, that begins to hurt if you sit too long
  14. What is the pectineal line? The “line” on the anterior superior pubis that differentiates the true and false pelvis
  15. Where is the Acetabulum? Deep fossa formed by the hip bones, that functions as a socket that accepts the rounded head of the femur
  16. What are the 2 categories that the bones of the skull are grouped into? Cranial [form the cranial cavity, encloses and protects the brain] and facial bones [the bones that make up the facial structure]
  17. What is the difference between the False (greater) pelvis and the True (lesser) pelvis? False: Everything outside of the pelvic brim, contains the upper portions of the hip bones, is bordered by the spine posteriorly, and the abdominal wall anteriorly. This is a part of the lower abdomen, which contains the full urinary bladder, lower intestines, uterus, ovaries, and uterine tubes. True: Inferior to the pelvic brim, the sacrum and coccyx are posterior to this, the ilium and ischium are lateral, the pubic bones are anterior to it. It contains the rectum, urinary bladder, vagina, cervix, and prostate.
  18. What is the difference between the female and male pelvis? Most differences are due to pregnancy and childbirth requirements. There is more space in the true pelvis in the female, especially the pelvic inlet and outlet to aid in passing the baby’s head.
  19. Where are the temporal bones? Paired bones that form the inferior lateral aspects of the cranium and part of the cranial floor
  20. Where is the zygomatic process and arch? The process projects from the inferior portion of the temporal squama and articulates with the temporal process of the zygomatic bones (creates a joint). The arch is formed by the process of the temporal bone and the temporal process of the zygomatic bone
  21. What is the mandibular fossa? A socket located on the inferior posterior surface of the zygomatic process of each temporal bone; the mandibular fossa and the articular tubercle articulate with the mandible to form the temporo-mandibular joint (TMJ)
  22. Mastoid portion vs mastoid process: The portion is located posterior and inferior to the external auditory meatus, direct sound waves into the each. In an adult, this portion of the bone contains several mastoid air cells that communicate with the hollow space of the middle ear. They are separated from the brain by thin body partitions. The process is a rounded projection of the mastoid portion of the temporal bone posterior and inferior to the external auditory meatus, is the point of attachment for several neck muscles
  23. Internal auditory meatus: The opening through which the facial nerve [VII] and vestibulocochlear nerve [VIII] pass
  24. Sutural Bones: Are small bones located in sutures (joints) between certain cranial bones; the numbers vary from person to person

Chapter 8: The Skeletal System- Appendicular Skeleton

  1. Types of Processes: Projections or outgrowths on bone that form joints or attachment points for connective tissues, such as ligaments and tendons; types include Condyles, Facets, and Heads
  2. Where is the Coronoid Fossa? Anterior depression that receives the coronoid process of the ulna when the forearm is flexed
  3. Where is the Olecranon Fossa? Large posterior depression that receives the olecranon of the ulna when the forearm is extended
  4. Where is the lateral and medial epicondyle? Rough projections on either side of the distal end of the humerus to which tendons of most muscles of the forearm are attached
  5. What is the Carpus? The wrist: proximal end of the hand consisting of 8 small bones, the carpals, joined together via ligaments
  6. What are the 8 carpal bones? Scaphoid [Boat-like], Lunate [moon-shaped], Triquetrum [3-cornered], Pisiform [pea-shaped], Trapezium [4- sided figure with NO 2-sides parallel], Trapezoid [4-sided figure WITH 2-sides parallel], Capitate [head-shaped], & Hamate [hooked]
  7. What are the metacarpals? The palm: intermediate region of the hand, consists of 5 bones called the metacarpals
  8. The thumb [pollex] has _______ phalanges called ________. The other four digits have _______ phalanges called ________. 2 and proximal and distal; 3 and proximal, middle and distal
  9. Clavicle: aka collarbone, lies horizontally across the anterior part of the thorax superior to the first rib, it is subcutaneous and easily palpable. Bone is S-shaped, and rougher/more curved in males
  10. Linea Aspera: Vertical ridge that serves as an attachment point for the tendons of several thigh muscles
  11. The medial condyle of the femur articulates with the __________. Medial condyle of the tibia.
  12. The lateral condyle of the femur articulates with the __________. Lateral condyle of the tibia.
  13. What is the intercondylar fossa? A depressed area between the condyles on the posterior surface
  14. Patella: aka kneecap, a small, triangular bone located artier to the knee joint
  1. Tibia: aka skin bone; larger, medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg. Articulates at its proximal end with the femur and fibula, and its distal end with the fibula and the talus bone of the ankle
  2. The proximal end of the tibia is expanded into a _______ and _______. These articulate with the condyles of the femur to form the lateral and medial tibiofemoral [knee] joints. Lateral condyle; medial condyle

Chapter 9: Joints

  1. What is a Diarthrosis? A freely moveable joint, all diarthroses are synovial joints. Variety of shapes and permits several different types of movement (most common in body, synovial cavity is filled with fluid)
  2. What is Amphiarthrosis? Slightly moveable joints, these are the cartilaginous joints (Connects bones with cartilage, found in the pubis symphysis and joints between the ribs and sternum)
  3. What is Synarthrosis? Immoveable joints, these are fibrous joints (connects bones with dense fibrous connective tissue (Typically found in the sutures of the skull, or teeth in the jaw)
  4. What are the 3 types of fibrous joints? Sutures, Syndesmosis, and Interosseous membranes
  5. What are Sutures? Articulating bones united by a thin layer of dense irregular connective tissue between skull bones, Synarthrosis, but amphiarthrosis in infants
  6. What is Synostosis? Sutures present during growth of the skull in children, but replaced by bone in adulthood
  7. What is Syndesmosis? Fibrous joint in which there is a greater distance between the articulating surfaces and more dense irregular connective tissue that in a suture. Typically arranged as a bundle (ligament), allowing the joint to permit limited movement
  8. What is an Interosseous membrane? Sheet of dense irregular connective tissue that binds neighbouring long bones and permits amphiarthrosis
  9. What are the 3 types of cartilaginous joints? Synchondrosis, symphysis, and epiphyseal cartilages
  10. What is Synchondrosis? Cartilaginous joint in which connecting material is hyaline cartilage; can be amphiarthrosis to synarthrosis
  11. What is Symphysis? Cartilaginous joint in which the ends of the articulating bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, but a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage connects the bones. These occur in the midline of the body and are amphiarthrosis.
  12. What are epiphyseal cartilages? Hyaline cartilage growth centers during endochondral bone formation, not joints associated with movements. Are synarthrosis
  13. What is a synovial cavity? Joint cavities are a space between articulating bones, which allow considerable amount of movement at a joint, all synovial joints are classified as diarthrosis
  14. What is articular cartilage? Layer of hyaline cartilage covers articulating surfaces of the bones with smooth, slippery surface but does not bind them together. This reduces friction between bones in the joint during movement and helps absorb shock
  15. What is an articular capsule? Joint capsules are sleeve-like capsules that surround synovial joints, enclose synovial cavities and unite the articulating bones. These are composed of outer fibrous membranes and inner synovial membranes
  16. What are fibrous membranes? Dense irregular connective tissues (mostly collagen fibers) that attached to the periosteum of the articulating bones. This is a thickened continuation of the periosteum between the bones. This permits movements at a joint, while maintaining a strong resistance to stretching, and helps prevent bones from dislocating.
  17. Synovial membrane: Is composed of areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers
  18. Ligaments are: Parallel fiber bundles of dense regular connective tissue that are highly adapted for resisting strains. Ligaments are one of the main factors that hold bones together in a synovial joint
  19. What are articular fat pads? Accumulations of adipose tissues, can be found in many synovial jpints within the synovial membrane
  20. What is synovial fluid? Secreted by the synovial membrane, gel-like clear/pale-yellow fluid, containing hyaluronic acid and interstitial fluid. Forms a thin film over the surfaces within the articular capsule. Functions include reducing friction by lubrication at the joint, absorbing shocks, supplying oxygen/nutrients, and removing CO2 and metabolic wastes from the chondrocytes within the articular cartilage
  21. What are extracapsular ligaments? Ligaments that lie outside of the articular capsule. These provide support and stability to the joints. (i.e. MCL and LCL in knees, coracoacromial ligament in the shoulders, radial collateral ligament in the elbow, the TMJ in the jaw, and the Interspinous ligaments in the spine)
  22. What are intracapsular ligaments? Fall within the articular capsule but don’t include the synovial cavity. Aid in stability and prevention of joints moving in directions they shouldn’t (i.e. ACL and PCL of the knees, ligament on head of the femur in the hips)
  23. Articular Discs and their functions: aka Menisci, crescent-shaped pads of fibrocartilage that lies between the articular surfaces of the bones and are attached to the fibrous capsule. These bind strongly to the inside of the fibrous membrane and usually divide the synovial cavity into two spaces, which allows separate movements to occur into each space. Functions include shock absorption, a better fit of articulating bone surfaces, providing adaptable surfaces for combined movements, weight distribution over a greater contact surface, and distribution of synovial lubricant across the articular surfaces of the joint
  24. What is a Labrum? Prominent in the ball-and-socket joints, fibrocartilaginous lip that extends from the edge of a joint socket. This helps deepen the joint socket and increases the area of contact between the socket and the ball-like surface
  25. Describe the nerve and blood supply of synovial joints: Contain many nerve endings that distributed to the articular capsule and ligaments. Most joints are avascular, arteries in the vicinity send out numerous branches that penetrate the ligaments and articular capsule to deliver oxygen and nutrients. Veins remove CO2 and wastes from the joints. The chondrocytes in the articular cartilage of a synovial joint receive oxygen and nutrients from synovial fluid derived from blood; all other joint tissues and supplied directly by capillaries.
  26. What is Bursae? A Sac-like structure that is placed to alleviate friction in joints. Filled with a small amount of fluid that is similar to synovial fluid. Can be located between skin and bones, tendons and bones, muscles and bones, or ligaments and bones.
  27. What are tendon sheaths? Aka synovial sheaths, help reduce friction at joints, tube-like bursae, they wrap around certain tendons that are more susceptible to friction, as they pass through tunnels formed by connective tissue and bone. It protects all sides of a tendon from friction as it slides back and forth

Chapter 10: Muscular Tissue

  1. What is contractility? The ability of muscular tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated by an action potential
  1. What is a neuromuscular junction? The synapse between the somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber, where muscle action potentials arise from
  2. What is a Synapse? Regions when communication occurs between 2 neurons or between a neuron and target cell, in this case, between a somatic motor neuron and a muscle fiber
  3. A synaptic cleft vs. Synaptic end bulbs: A small gap that separates 2 cells. Cells don’t physically touch so the action potential cant “jump the gap” from one cell to another vs. The neural part of the neuromuscular junction
  4. A neurotransmitter is: A chemical messenger
  5. An Axon terminal is: The end of a motor neuron at the neuromuscular junction
  6. Synaptic vesicles: Are membrane-enclosed sacs that are suspended in the cytosol within the synaptic end bulbs
  7. How does acetylcholine (ACh) play a part in the NMJ? This is a neurotransmitter that is released by the NMJ that is found in synaptic vesicles
  8. What is the motor end plate? Region of the sarcolemma opposite the synaptic end bulbs
  9. What do acetylcholine receptors do? These are integral transmembrane proteins that ACh specifically binds to; these receptors are found in junctional folds [deep grooves in the motor end plates that provide a large surface area for ACh]
  10. Pick which one is an example of a positive feedback loop: childbirth
  11. Which ones are examples of growth: building muscle and bone elongation
  12. What’s included in the anatomical position:
  13. Diagram: brain cut top and bottom: transverse
  14. T/F, RNA is a double helix: F
  15. What type of gland does milk come from:
  16. Which property in a cell is needed for protein production: ribosomes
  17. Diagram: where is the canaliculi?
  18. What type of bone is in the hands and ankles: short
  19. If you were bending your knee, what ligament would be present to ensure the femur and tibia do not get displaced: ACL or PCL
  20. T/F, the fontanelles are dangerous for newborns: F
  21. Which fact is correct of the hyoid bone: it does not articulate with any other bones
  22. What are the bones in the upper extremity in order from proximal to distal:
  23. In a feedback loop, which one is Incorrect: the effector is the kidney
  24. What is the most abundant molecule type in the body: covalent bonds
  25. If the concentration is higher inside the cell instead of outside, using osmosis, where will the cell go: leaving the cell
  26. A pharmacist is creating a topical medication, which one will do best for absorption into the skin: the lipid soluble one
  27. How do enzymes work:
  28. What part of the cell stores fats, steroids, and removes wastes: smooth ER
  29. What stage do the parts of mitosis line up: anaphase
  30. ——- something about meiosis stages
  31. What type of junction keeps fluids from leaking out of the bladder: tight junctions
  32. What type of cells can be found in the uterus, and some bronchioles:
  33. If I bug landed on your arm, what would alert you:
  34. In order of skin layers, how are new cells created:
  35. What is a nutrient foramen:
  36. Allows nutrient arteries to pass
  37. Where does hematopoiesis occur: RBM
  38. What decreases density of bone tissue?
  39. When two bones are fused together: synostosis
  40. ______ is considered what type of joint: synarthrosis
  41. How does the head of the humerus stay in place?
  42. ______ is inferior to the pubic symphysis: true pelvis
  43. T/F, the elbow can adduct, abduct, and circumduction: F
  44. T/F, the nasal bone includes nasal conchae, vomer, and ethmoid: T
  45. Smooth muscle is considered non-striated because:
  46. Which type of muscle is involuntary: smooth and cardiac
  47. Ions share: a valence electron
  48. What monomer makes up DNA and RNA:
  49. What type of gland does sweat come from:
  50. Something about the clavicle
  51. A few questions about the femur (like the greater/lesser trochanter, head)
  52. What helps change the pH in hydrogen molecules: buffer systems
  53. Which lipid is part of basic cell structure: phospholipid
  54. Lots of q’s on tissues
  55. Which one is not a type of epithelial tissue: synovial
  56. Diagram: sarcomere, had to point out the functional unit
  57. Is carotene apart of skin pigment: yes
  58. Which skin layer is not found in thin skin: lucidum
  59. Diagram: where is the nail matrix
  1. A few questions on osteoblasts
  2. Which bone is unpaired: mandible
  3. When two or more types of tissues are together, they make: an organ
  4. Which two organ systems oversee homeostasis: endocrine and nervous
  5. Define energy
  6. Question about anabolism
  7. Lipid bilayer
  8. What does a basic function nucleus look like:
  9. What type of gland ruptures when secreting: holocrine
  10. What is the thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the bone that forms an articulation: articular cartilage
  11. The most abundant mineral salt: calcium phosphate
  12. Diagram: which one is a male pelvis
  13. T/F: the male pelvis is wider and _________: F
  14. Know steps of bone remodeling
  15. Diagram: label the nutrient artery in a bone
  16. A few questions on Ca2+ and bones
  17. Where the mandible articulates on the face
  18. What part of the spine babies develops when they start walking
  19. What is the largest and stronger vertebrae: L
  20. What bones help hold the upper appendicular skeleton to the axial skeleton:
  21. What are the parts of the ribs: ribs, sternum, costal cartilage
  22. The pectoral girdles include:
  23. What are the parts of the ischium
  24. What joint has a ring: pivot
  25. A few questions on NMJ
  26. ACh and its termination
  27. Going for a quick jog would use reaction: aerobic respiration
  28. Slow oxidative fibers:
  29. Question on twitch reactions
  30. Question about standing on left foot, and right foot up in a 90° angle position